Evaluating the Greenhouse Gas (GHG) life cycle emissions and cost of electric two-wheelers: Policy implications for sustainable mobility in India

The transition to alternative energy-driven vehicles has emerged as a key strategy in mitigating climate change and reducing carbon emissions within the transportation sector. In India, the adoption of electric two-wheelers (E2-Ws), including E-scooters and E-motorcycles, has accelerated in response to government initiatives and rising consumer demand. This study assesses the sustainability of E2-Ws by analyzing greenhouse gas (GHG) life cycle emissions and life cycle costs (LCC) across various models of E2-Ws available in the Indian market. A cluster analysis classified E2-W models into distinct groups, followed by a detailed evaluation of GHG emissions and costs for representative models within each cluster. Results indicate that, under current policy frameworks, the total GHG emissions per vehicle across all models range from 3690.5 to 6668.73 kg-CO2 eq. The LCC of evaluated models ranges from ₹ 1.14/km to ₹ 3.05/km, revealing that tangible costs significantly influence the overall cost of ownership for the evaluated E2-W models. A sensitivity analysis was also performed, accounting for factors such as variations in the electricity generation mix, average daily driving distance, and discount rates. This analysis highlights the economic robustness of E2-W ownership and emphasizes the importance of targeted subsidies and clean energy integration. The study provides actionable insights to future policymaking, industry development, and academic research to support sustainable electric mobility adoption in India.