Optimal timetabling and charger deployment for urban–rural electric bus services: Formulation and case study

The electrification of rural bus systems is increasingly advocated as a critical strategy for achieving low-carbon transportation goals. However, the unique challenges of these areas, including sparse passenger demand, extended route lengths, and poor stop accessibility, often render electric bus systems economically inefficient compared to their urban counterparts. This paper presents an optimization model for jointly planning timetables and charging infrastructure for urban–rural battery electric bus (BEB) services, aiming to minimize both passenger and operator costs. The model incorporates en-route charging and flexible battery sizing to capitalize on time-of-use electricity tariffs. An adaptive large neighborhood search (ALNS) algorithm is developed to solve the proposed model efficiently. Using a real-world case study from Chibi City China, we demonstrate the model’s application through comparing various charging modes against the existing operational scheme. The results reveal that the introduction of BEBs with en-route charging can create a “triple-win” outcome for passengers, operators, and society. Specifically, the optimized en-route charging system reduces total social costs by 28% compared to the current scheme and cuts carbon emissions by 44% relative to traditional diesel bus operations.