Comparative techno-economic analysis of liquid-hydrogen refueling stations: Process designs, pump technologies, and cold energy utilization

This study compares process configurations for liquid-hydrogen refueling stations (LHRSs) in China that store LH2 but dispense gaseous hydrogen at 90 MPa. We analyzed three pressurization systems—mechanical compressors, cryogenic pumps, and hybrid configurations—using equipment specifications from Linde, Air Liquie, and Chart Industries collected during 2023-2024. Station capacities ranged from 200 to 2000 kg H2/day, with all economic calculations based on 15-year equipment lifetimes and Chinese market conditions. We built an econometric model incorporating multivariate regression, sensitivity analysis, and Monte Carlo simulation with 10,000 iterations to evaluate energy consumption, capital costs, operating expenses, and refueling efficiency under realistic uncertainty. The model accounts for equipment performance variability, maintenance requirements, and boil-off gas losses often overlooked in earlier studies, with specific attention to China's electricity pricing structures and manufacturing cost advantages. Cryogenic pumps consumed 30% less energy than compressors at commercial scales above 1000 kg/day, mainly because pressurizing liquids requires less work than compressing gases. This efficiency advantage reduced the levelized cost of hydrogen by 18-24% at large stations under Chinese operating conditions. However, pumps contributed roughly 25% of operating costs and 20-25% of capital investment due to specialized maintenance needs and equipment complexity. Hybrid systems showed worse economics than either pure approach because they combined equipment from both technologies without proportional benefits. Cold energy recovery from LH2 vaporization (446 kJ/kg) looked economically marginal even with China's lower electricity costs. Break-even analysis showed profitability only when electricity exceeded ¥0.85-1.25/kWh ($0.12-0.18/kWh) or carbon taxes reached ¥500-780/ton CO2 ($72-112/ton). Our findings help guide infrastructure investment decisions as China accelerates hydrogen deployment under its carbon neutrality targets.