Multilevel assessment of energy security in Cameroon: A 3A-based framework for bridging renewable-nonrenewable trade-offs in emerging African economies

This study examines the household-facing dimension of energy security in Cameroon through a 3A-based Energy Accessibility Index (EAI) built on availability, affordability, and acceptability. Using survey data from 500 households collected in 2024 across Yaoundé (urban, n = 200), Bafoussam (semi-urban, n = 150), and Wum (rural, n = 150), and interpreting these findings against national energy-system trends from 2000 to 2022, the paper compares how accessibility constraints differ across settlement types. The results show a clear spatial gradient in composite accessibility: Yaoundé records the highest EAI (0.667), followed by Bafoussam (0.583) and Wum (0.500). Urban households perform better on availability and affordability, whereas rural households show stronger acceptability toward decentralized options but remain constrained by lower service continuity and weaker affordability. Rural respondents also report limited access to training, maintenance, and financing channels, helping explain the gap between willingness to adopt and actual uptake. In urban households, affordability is positively associated with appliance ownership (r = 0.68, p < 0.01), suggesting that accessibility shapes not only connection status but also welfare-enhancing energy use. The study contributes a transparent and replicable household-level diagnostic that reveals which barriers dominate in different contexts. Scientifically, it operationalizes acceptability alongside technical and economic dimensions within a consistent composite framework; societally, it supports differentiated policy pathways, including trust-building and quality assurance for decentralized options in urban areas and affordability-linked hybrid mini-grid strategies in rural settings.