Sustainability transition paradox: Emerging dimensions of illegal artisanal and small-scale mining of critical minerals in Africa

The global push for energy transition has intensified competition for Africa's mineral resources, which are essential for producing low-emission technologies. This renewed demand is reshaping the continent's extractive sector and, in some cases, exacerbating governance challenges and reinforcing illegal artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) activities. In this review, we examine how the search and demand for critical minerals contribute to illegal ASM operations in Africa. Drawing on emerging evidence from the copper industry in Zambia, the lithium sector in Zimbabwe, and the cobalt industry in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), we identify a growing incidence of illegal ASM activities involving critical minerals. Our findings suggest that the high global demand for critical minerals contributes to illegal ASM activities in our case study countries. However, significant contributing factors include rural poverty, unemployment, limited livelihood options, access to mineral-rich lands, declining agricultural productivity due to climate change, and the need for funds to support rebel activities. We argue that the race for Africa's resources to support global energy transition may create a sustainability transition paradox—advancing long-term social and technological transformation while simultaneously intensifying sustainability challenges such as environmental degradation and water pollution. These insights have important implications for policies aimed at promoting responsible mining practices and ensuring that energy transitions are both equitable and sustainable.