Exploring the adverse effects of the metaverse on users’ psychological well-being and Self-Esteem: A mixed-methods study

The metaverse promises to transform various aspects of life by ushering in a new era of interconnected digital experiences. While its potential benefits have been widely discussed, the negative impacts on users' mental health remain relatively underexplored. Grounded in the psychometric paradigm of risk perception and employing a mixed-methods approach, this study investigates the adverse effects of the metaverse on users' psychological well-being and self-esteem, as well as the extent to which declines in these factors contribute to discontinuation intentions. A qualitative study (N = 28) identified six critical risks associated with metaverse usage: virtual reality sickness, addiction, metaverse-induced social comparison, depersonalization/derealization, anonymity misconduct, and identity theft concerns. These risks were categorized into dread, novel, and stigma risks. A subsequent quantitative study (N = 961) confirmed that these risks negatively affect psychological well-being and self-esteem, which, in turn, significantly influence users’ intentions to discontinue metaverse usage. These findings extend the existing literature and underscore the importance of proactive design interventions. System designers and developers are urged to address these emerging risks to ensure a safer, more ethical, and sustainable metaverse environment.