Well-to-wheel energetic, environmental and economic life cycle assessment of methanol and hydrogen pathways in China

As efforts to decarbonize transport accelerate, methanol and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles have emerged as potential low-carbon alternatives. Methanol, a liquid hydrogen carrier with high storage capacity, safety, renewability, and infrastructure compatibility, offers a practical solution to the challenges of hydrogen storage and distribution. However, its strategic role within the hydrogen energy chain remains unclear due to the lack of comparative system-level assessments. Here, we present a well-to-wheel (WTW) energetic, environmental, and economic (3 E) life cycle assessment of fossil- and renewable-based methanol and hydrogen pathways in the context of China's energy, industry, and economy. Results show that methanol pathways achieve significant reductions in global warming potential (6∼82%) and levelized costs (11∼78%), while improving overall performance by 50%. We recommend prioritizing coal-coking and green methanol, particularly those assisted by wind, nuclear, and hydro power. Hydrogen pathways should remain a long-term target, particularly in enhancing environmental and economic metrics. Sensitivity analysis identifies methanol reformer and fuel cell as the most influential factors, making them the highest research priority. Improving methanol reforming fuel cell efficiency by 1.5-fold can significantly boost deployment potential and address the technical bottleneck in the fuel cell.