Site-specific multi-case analysis for carbon-free energy deployment in California using multi-objective optimization

The stochastic nature of renewable energy sources such as solar and wind have necessitated options for energy storage. To meet the base demands, consistent generation sources such as, nuclear and geothermal, are beneficial. Moreover, the policy changes based on different regions and countries are also to be considered when designing a reliable energy system to meet the growing energy demands. In this study, a multi-objective optimization to reduce the system levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) and emissions has been conducted. A review of the existing literatures for the potential solar, wind, geothermal and hydrogen storage locations in California have been identified. In addition to this, three different case studies have been conducted based on the nuclear energy policies and hydrogen sale price scenarios to study the impact on the system operation and configuration. Based on the results, it was concluded that the hydrogen sale price change from 3.7 to 1.85 $/kg had no significant impact on the system configuration and only decreased the overall system LCOE by 14.9%. Similarly, the use of only RES coupled with battery storage increases the system LCOE by around 26.75% as compared to case 1 and 10.3% as compared to case 2 while the emissions remain comparable to the cases with nuclear sources. The system favored wind turbines in all the cases along with rapid utilization of energy storage options such as batteries and hydrogen to meet the demand.