Zero-Dimensional modeling and optimization of hydrogen refueling for type IV tanks: from validation to large-scale applications

The transition to hydrogen as an alternative fuel is crucial for reducing emissions in the transportation sector. However, challenges related to refueling times and storage capacity must be addressed for hydrogen-powered vehicles and especially for vehicles who need large amounts of hydrogen on-board. Too rapid compression of hydrogen during refueling can cause elevated temperatures, which reduces the gas density, thus limiting tank capacity, and cause damage to the tank. Pre-cooling technologies are employed to mitigate these effects. This paper presents a zero-dimensional (0D) numerical model developed to simulate the hydrogen filling process, with validation against experimental and three-dimensional (3D) model data, enabling fast and computationally efficient assessment of operational strategies for refueling. The model is first applied to a Type IV 29L tank, and then to a larger 2000L Type IV tank to investigate the effects of key operational parameters. The study specifically investigates the effects of inlet hydrogen gas temperature, inlet injector diameter, and different inlet pressure profiles on the refueling process. Results show that lowering the inlet hydrogen temperature from 0 °C to −40 °C increases the stored mass by up to 5 kg and prevents the gas temperature from exceeding the 85 °C safety threshold. Increasing the inlet injector diameter significantly boosts mass flow rates and reduces filling times. Different inlet pressure profiles are also analyzed, showing that steeper ramps enhance filling speed but raise thermal peaks. The findings provide practical guidelines for optimizing large-scale hydrogen refueling strategies while ensuring safety and system efficiency.