Structure and stability of ecological networks constructed from land use, protected areas, and ecosystem services on the Tibetan Plateau

With increasing habitat fragmentation, ecological network construction has become a key framework for exploring ecosystem stability. Ecological networks can be constructed from multiple perspectives, including land use, protected areas, and ecosystem services, each reflecting distinct ecological processes and conservation priorities. However, the structural differences and interactions among networks derived from these different perspectives remain poorly understood. This study, conducted on the Tibetan Plateau, constructed three types of ecological networks based on land use (ENlu), protected areas (ENpa), and ecosystem services (ENes), and compared their structural changes and stability between 2000 and 2020 using topological indicators, community detection, and robustness assessment. Results indicated a reduction of ecological sources and corridors in ENlu; ENpa had the largest total area of ecological sources and the shortest average corridor length, with an increase in their numbers; and ENes showed increasing fragmentation of ecological sources. Topological analysis revealed that ENlu connectivity slightly increased but became more reliant on a few key nodes, while ENpa connectivity slightly decreased, and ENes became more dispersed without heavily relying on key nodes. All three networks exhibited obvious community structures; community numbers in ENlu and ENpa increased, whereas ENes maintained a stable community structure with higher modularity and tighter internal connections. ENlu and ENpa were more vulnerable under malicious and random attacks, while ENes showed greater stability. These findings reveal distinct structural characteristics and stability patterns among different ecological networks, demonstrate the value of network science methods, and provide a reference for differentiated ecological conservation on the Tibetan Plateau.