Exploring household resilience indicators in the context of urban-rural linked water systems and post-disaster scenarios in Kathmandu valley

Water use efficiency has increased by 9 %, yet water stress and scarcity remain pressing global challenges. Additionally, unprecedented disruptions in water systems between supply and demand exacerbate the issue. In this context, households play a crucial role in communicating with relevant authorities about emergencies such as pipe leaks, disaster disruption to the water system, etc. However, if households are unwilling to share water or dissatisfied with the system, conflicts may arise, leading to water scarcity even during non-crisis periods. Although resilient water infrastructure is recognized, displacement due to disasters, protests, reconstruction, and potential labor shortages for future water projects underscore the importance of understanding household resilience. Therefore, this research aims to identify which household indicators help communities cope with disasters and support the water system, in addition to assessing the current household status in both demand and supply zones. Data were collected using two tools: focus group discussions with four groups and household surveys conducted with 438 respondents from Kathmandu valley, Nepal (urban, peri‑urban), and Melamchi (rural areas), divided into eight clusters. The findings revealed that 31 indicators under the PEISE framework (physical, economic, institutional, Social, and Environmental) are affected in the post-disaster context. In addition, critical indicators such as reduced water quantity in urban areas impacting revenue collection, and house damage and displacement due to flooding leading to labor shortages in production areas, illustrate how post-disaster displacement and damage undermine local support mechanisms essential for sustaining the water system. Overall, rural area is identified as low-resilience zone, highlighting the need for benefit-sharing programs (water- exchange- need based support) similar to those implemented in other cities, such as water benefit-sharing and payment for ecosystem services (PES).