Efficiency prediction and experimental validation of anti-glare coloured photovoltaic modules for building integration

The pursuit of carbon neutrality and zero‑carbon buildings is driving the development of building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV), placing concurrent demands on its safety, efficiency, and aesthetics. However, the monotonous colour and glare caused by the smooth surface of conventional PV modules (PVs) hinder their facade integration. This study proposes both a fabrication method and an efficiency-prediction model for anti-glare coloured PVs, involving frosting the outer glass surface and high-temperature curing of interferometric pigments on the inner surface. Comparing physical treatment (PT) and chemical treatment (CT) for producing matte surfaces indicates that the short-circuit current (Isc) decreased by approximately 5% and 2%, respectively, while the power conversion efficiency (PCE) of the coloured PVs achieves 70.63%–94.66% of the reference module. A concise predictive model based on the optical properties of the anti-glare coloured glass was developed to estimate electrical performance of the PVs. The prediction errors for Isc remained within ±4.75%, while PCE errors were within ±7.93% for coloured PVs with PT and ±2.50% for those with CT. For the first time, comprehensive outdoor tests were conducted on large-size anti-glare coloured PVs under diverse azimuths and tilts. The results showed that vertical installations yielded only 27.3%–42.6% of the energy produced at a 30° tilt, and energy yield ratios relative to reference PVs were 0.65–0.77 for green and 0.75–0.84 for blue modules. This study provides a practical technical solution and theoretical foundation for the colour design, glare suppression, and performance prediction of BIPV systems.