IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/appene/v409y2026ics0306261926001376.html

Towards a sustainable workplace: a life cycle perspective on EV-charging-integrated HVAC systems

Author

Listed:
  • Wang, Ruiqi
  • Ling-Chin, Janie
  • Roy, Dibyendu
  • Roskilly, Anthony Paul

Abstract

Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems contribute substantially to energy consumption and carbon emissions in the building sector. This study evaluates the environmental impacts of solar-powered HVAC systems in the workplace in a city in Portugal (Sines) using a comprehensive life cycle assessment (LCA), compared to systems powered by national grid electricity. The LCA is performed using the Environmental Footprint (EF) 3.1 method with a cradle-to-grave system boundary. Electric vehicle chargers are included to temporarily store excess electricity generated from a solar photovoltaic system. Results from the LCA indicate that the manufacturing and operation phases of the product system powered by grid electricity contribute significantly to most of the environmental impacts, while switching to a solar-powered system could reduce the climate change impact by 87.28%. The sensitivity analysis demonstrates that heating and cooling set point temperatures of HVAC systems critically affect the environmental burdens arising from the product system. Substituting reclaimed refrigerants for newly produced refrigerants can reduce global warming potential by 5.8% during the manufacturing phase of HVAC systems. Enhancing HVAC energy efficiency and adapting heating and cooling operation are essential for reducing GHG emissions. Furthermore, the scope of the study is expanded by evaluating the environmental impacts of workplace HVAC systems in three more different European cities, i.e., Paris, London, and Oslo, representing warm and cold climate zones. Future increases in renewable electricity capacity lead to reduced environmental impacts but increase mineral and metal resource use. A broader consideration of environmental impacts through LCA offers insights into the future development and application of sustainable energy systems.

Suggested Citation

  • Wang, Ruiqi & Ling-Chin, Janie & Roy, Dibyendu & Roskilly, Anthony Paul, 2026. "Towards a sustainable workplace: a life cycle perspective on EV-charging-integrated HVAC systems," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 409(C).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:appene:v:409:y:2026:i:c:s0306261926001376
    DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2026.127485
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306261926001376
    Download Restriction: Full text for ScienceDirect subscribers only
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1016/j.apenergy.2026.127485?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to

    for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Noah Horesh & David A. Trinko & Jason C. Quinn, 2024. "Author Correction: Comparing costs and climate impacts of various electric vehicle charging systems across the United States," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 15(1), pages 1-1, December.
    2. Liu, Yanfeng & Zhao, Yiting & Chen, Yaowen & Wang, Dengjia & Li, Yong & Yuan, Xipeng, 2022. "Design optimization of the solar heating system for office buildings based on life cycle cost in Qinghai-Tibet plateau of China," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 246(C).
    3. Hu, Yue & Heiselberg, Per Kvols & Johra, Hicham & Guo, Rui, 2020. "Experimental and numerical study of a PCM solar air heat exchanger and its ventilation preheating effectiveness," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 145(C), pages 106-115.
    4. Catrini, P. & Cellura, M. & Guarino, F. & Panno, D. & Piacentino, A., 2018. "An integrated approach based on Life Cycle Assessment and Thermoeconomics: Application to a water-cooled chiller for an air conditioning plant," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 160(C), pages 72-86.
    5. Cha, Min-kyeong & Struthers, Cory L. & Brown, Marilyn A. & Kale, Snehal & Chapman, Oliver, 2024. "Toward residential decarbonization: Analyzing social-psychological drivers of household co-adoption of rooftop solar, electric vehicles, and efficient HVAC systems in Georgia, U.S," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 226(C).
    6. Sun, Chuyu & Zhao, Xiaoli & Qi, Binbin & Xiao, Weihao & Zhang, Hongjun, 2022. "Economic and environmental analysis of coupled PV-energy storage-charging station considering location and scale," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 328(C).
    7. Wohlschlager, Daniela & Kigle, Stephan & Schindler, Vanessa & Neitz-Regett, Anika & Fröhling, Magnus, 2024. "Environmental effects of vehicle-to-grid charging in future energy systems – A prospective life cycle assessment," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 370(C).
    8. Al-Ugla, A.A. & El-Shaarawi, M.A.I. & Said, S.A.M. & Al-Qutub, A.M., 2016. "Techno-economic analysis of solar-assisted air-conditioning systems for commercial buildings in Saudi Arabia," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 54(C), pages 1301-1310.
    9. Pan, Ting & Ocłoń, Paweł & Cisek, Piotr & Nowak-Ocłoń, Marzena & Yildirim, Mehmet Ali & Wang, Bohong & Van Fan, Yee & Varbanov, Petar Sabev & Wan Alwi, Sharifah Rafidah, 2024. "A comparative life cycle assessment of solar combined cooling, heating, and power systems based on RESHeat technology," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 359(C).
    10. Mazzeo, Domenico, 2019. "Nocturnal electric vehicle charging interacting with a residential photovoltaic-battery system: a 3E (energy, economic and environmental) analysis," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 168(C), pages 310-331.
    11. Viole, Isabelle & Valenzuela-Venegas, Guillermo & Sartori, Sabrina & Zeyringer, Marianne, 2024. "Integrated life cycle assessment in off-grid energy system design—Uncovering low hanging fruit for climate mitigation," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 367(C).
    12. Abas, Naeem & Kalair, Ali Raza & Khan, Nasrullah & Haider, Aun & Saleem, Zahid & Saleem, Muhammad Shoaib, 2018. "Natural and synthetic refrigerants, global warming: A review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 90(C), pages 557-569.
    13. Chenari, Behrang & Dias Carrilho, João & Gameiro da Silva, Manuel, 2016. "Towards sustainable, energy-efficient and healthy ventilation strategies in buildings: A review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 59(C), pages 1426-1447.
    14. Noah Horesh & David A. Trinko & Jason C. Quinn, 2024. "Comparing costs and climate impacts of various electric vehicle charging systems across the United States," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 15(1), pages 1-13, December.
    15. Mitterrutzner, Benjamin & Callegher, Claudio Zandonella & Fraboni, Riccardo & Wilczynski, Eric & Pezzutto, Simon, 2023. "Review of heating and cooling technologies for buildings: A techno-economic case study of eleven European countries," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 284(C).
    16. Huckebrink, David & Bertsch, Valentin, 2022. "Decarbonising the residential heating sector: A techno-economic assessment of selected technologies," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 257(C).
    17. Peters, Pedro & da Costa, Vinicius Braga Ferreira & Dias, Bruno Henriques & Bonatto, Benedito Donizeti, 2025. "A holistic analysis of environmental impacts and improvement pathways for the Brazilian electric sector based on long-term planning and life cycle assessment," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 377(PB).
    18. Al-Mahmodi, Mohammed & Ayadi, Osama & Al-Halhouli, Ala'aldeen, 2024. "Parametric modeling of green hydrogen production in solar PV-CSP hybrid plants: A techno-economic evaluation approach," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 313(C).
    19. Ma, Zhenjun & Xia, Lei & Gong, Xuemei & Kokogiannakis, Georgios & Wang, Shugang & Zhou, Xinlei, 2020. "Recent advances and development in optimal design and control of ground source heat pump systems," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 131(C).
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. He, Xianya & Huang, Jingzhi & Liu, Zekun & Lin, Jian & Jing, Rui & Zhao, Yingru, 2023. "Topology optimization of thermally activated building system in high-rise building," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 284(C).
    2. Pengjun Zhao & Zhaoxiang Li & Zhangyuan He & Yilin Chen & Zuopeng Xiao, 2025. "Reducing the road freight emissions through integrated strategy in the port cities," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 16(1), pages 1-14, December.
    3. Xin, Wentao & Lu, Zhenwei & Yu, Zhe & He, Zhaoxuan & Pu, Hongjiang & Ye, Bin, 2025. "Aggregator-driven optimisation of electric vehicle charging stations in Shenzhen: Synergising smart charging, renewable energy integration and energy storage," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 397(C).
    4. Yingyue Li & Hongjun Li & Rui Miao & He Qi & Yi Zhang, 2023. "Energy–Environment–Economy (3E) Analysis of the Performance of Introducing Photovoltaic and Energy Storage Systems into Residential Buildings: A Case Study in Shenzhen, China," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 15(11), pages 1-25, June.
    5. Zhang, Nan & Liu, Gang & Man, Xiaoxin & Wang, Qingqin, 2025. "Climate and resource characteristics-based zoning of heat source retrofit for heating systems and implications for heat consumption of urban settlements in cold regions of China," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 314(C).
    6. Wang, Baichao & Liu, Yanfeng & Wang, Dengjia & Song, Cong & Fu, Zhiguo & Zhang, Cong, 2024. "A review of the photothermal-photovoltaic energy supply system for building in solar energy enrichment zones," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 191(C).
    7. Zhao, Zhen & Luo, Jielin & Zou, Dexin & Yang, Kaiyin & Wang, Qin & Chen, Guangming, 2023. "Experimental investigation on the inhibition of flame retardants on the flammability of R1234ze(E)," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 263(PE).
    8. Koomson, Isaac & Churchill, Sefa Awaworyi & Smyth, Russell, 2025. "Financial literacy and clean energy adoption in South Africa," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 151(C).
    9. Drosou, Vassiliki & Kosmopoulos, Panos & Papadopoulos, Agis, 2016. "Solar cooling system using concentrating collectors for office buildings: A case study for Greece," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 97(C), pages 697-708.
    10. David Vérez & Luisa F. Cabeza, 2021. "Which Building Services Are Considered to Have Impact on Climate Change?," Energies, MDPI, vol. 14(13), pages 1-16, June.
    11. Jiang, Sufan & Gao, Shan & Pan, Guangsheng & Zhao, Xin & Liu, Yu & Guo, Yasen & Wang, Sicheng, 2020. "A novel robust security constrained unit commitment model considering HVDC regulation," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 278(C).
    12. Behzad Rismanchi & Juan Mahecha Zambrano & Bryan Saxby & Ross Tuck & Mark Stenning, 2019. "Control Strategies in Multi-Zone Air Conditioning Systems," Energies, MDPI, vol. 12(3), pages 1-14, January.
    13. Yang, Jangho & Lee, Cheng-Yi & Muehlbauer, Jan & Hwang, Yunho, 2025. "Advanced defrosting techniques in air source heat pumps: A review of vapor injection, thermal energy storage, and experimental frost accumulation data," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 340(C).
    14. Kasaeian, Alibakhsh & Hosseini, Seyed Mohsen & Sheikhpour, Mojgan & Mahian, Omid & Yan, Wei-Mon & Wongwises, Somchai, 2018. "Applications of eco-friendly refrigerants and nanorefrigerants: A review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 96(C), pages 91-99.
    15. Luo, Jin & Zhang, Qi & Liang, Changming & Wang, Haiqi & Ma, Xinning, 2023. "An overview of the recent development of the Ground Source Heat Pump (GSHP) system in China," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 210(C), pages 269-279.
    16. Cao, Shanshan & Yang, Shaochuan & Sun, Chunhua & Zhang, Haixiang & Wu, Xiangdong, 2025. "Integrating multidimensional operational parameters for abnormal diagnosis in substations: A composite approach of non-uniform time series segmentation, trend information extraction, and symbolic representation," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 335(C).
    17. Gianluca Serale & Massimo Fiorentini & Alfonso Capozzoli & Daniele Bernardini & Alberto Bemporad, 2018. "Model Predictive Control (MPC) for Enhancing Building and HVAC System Energy Efficiency: Problem Formulation, Applications and Opportunities," Energies, MDPI, vol. 11(3), pages 1-35, March.
    18. Wang, Yihan & Chen, Tingsen & Khan, Sheher Yar & Liu, Shuli & Shen, Yongliang & Shao, Yingjuan & Ji, Wenjie & Xu, Zhiqi, 2025. "Evaluation and optimization of a novel CPC-PV/T driven cooling, heating and power cogeneration system based on thermochemical energy storage," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 316(C).
    19. D’Adamo, Idiano & Falcone, Pasquale Marcello & Gastaldi, Massimo & Morone, Piergiuseppe, 2020. "The economic viability of photovoltaic systems in public buildings: Evidence from Italy," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 207(C).
    20. Andrés Fernández-Miguel & Davide Settembre-Blundo & Marco Vacchi & Fernando E. García-Muiña, 2025. "Thermoeconomics Meets Business Science: Systemic Exergy Management (SYMΞX) as a New Theoretical and Flexible Framework for Sustainability," Global Journal of Flexible Systems Management, Springer;Global Institute of Flexible Systems Management, vol. 26(1), pages 111-139, March.

    More about this item

    Keywords

    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:eee:appene:v:409:y:2026:i:c:s0306261926001376. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Catherine Liu (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/405891/description#description .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.