IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/appene/v406y2026ics030626192501863x.html

Variable valve actuation (VVA) for next-generation marine and off-road engines: a comprehensive review for meeting future emissions legislation

Author

Listed:
  • Kim, Jeyoung
  • Soleimani, Amir
  • Nousiainen, Pekka
  • Axelsson, Martin
  • Mikulski, Maciej

Abstract

The marine and off-road sectors face challenges in complying with strict emission regulations. While zero‑carbon fuels and advanced combustion concepts are promising, variable valve actuation (VVA) technology offers immediate benefits for reducing emissions and increasing powertrain efficiency. Contemporary VVA reviews predominantly focus on stoichiometric spark ignition (SI) engines. The possibilities that VVA offers for modern compression ignition (CI) and dual-fuel engines with advanced combustion concepts have not yet been systematically explicated and evaluated. The present study decouples VVA's impact on three critical areas in CI and dual-fuel engines: exhaust thermal management (ETM), gas exchange, and combustion. Each has been thoroughly explored and the trade-offs between emission reduction potential and efficiency have been quantified. Using a systematic literature review (SLR) methodology, findings from 78 core research papers are corroborated, focused on marine and off-road applications. There is special emphasis on VVA in heavy-duty, medium- and high-speed engines. Key conclusions highlight that cylinder deactivation and intake modulation (Miller cycle) elevate exhaust temperature at low loads without compromising fuel efficiency. This is due to adjusting in-cylinder heat capacity and heat release rate. Modulating intake valve opening (IVO) and closing (IVC) are most promising in reducing pumping losses and enhancing volumetric efficiency and in-cylinder flow dynamics in high-speed engines. In medium-speed engines, a positive pressure gradient hinders the direct pumping loop effect, but the strategies can support the functioning of contemporary lambda control subsystems. Intake modulation and VVA-invoked exhaust gas recirculation allow fast combustion-phasing control by adjusting in-cylinder thermodynamic conditions. This extends the operational limits of ultra-clean, low-temperature combustion used in marine dual-fuel engines. The review underscores that VVA could be a key enabling technology for the next-generation of marine and off-road powertrains.

Suggested Citation

  • Kim, Jeyoung & Soleimani, Amir & Nousiainen, Pekka & Axelsson, Martin & Mikulski, Maciej, 2026. "Variable valve actuation (VVA) for next-generation marine and off-road engines: a comprehensive review for meeting future emissions legislation," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 406(C).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:appene:v:406:y:2026:i:c:s030626192501863x
    DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.127133
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030626192501863X
    Download Restriction: Full text for ScienceDirect subscribers only
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.127133?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to

    for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Fridrichová, K. & Drápal, L. & Vopařil, J. & Dlugoš, J., 2021. "Overview of the potential and limitations of cylinder deactivation," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 146(C).
    2. Mikulski, Maciej & Ramesh, Sudarshan & Bekdemir, Cemil, 2019. "Reactivity Controlled Compression Ignition for clean and efficient ship propulsion," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 182(C), pages 1173-1192.
    3. Praveen Kumar & Yu Zhang, 2022. "Variable Valve Strategy Evaluation for Low-Load Operation in a Heavy-Duty Gasoline Compression Ignition Engine," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(6), pages 1-25, March.
    4. Longxin Jiang & Liang Liu & Xiaowei Peng & Zhaoping Xu, 2020. "Design and Analysis of a Fully Variable Valve Actuation System," Energies, MDPI, vol. 13(23), pages 1-16, December.
    5. Mikulski, Maciej & Balakrishnan, Praveen Ramanujam & Hunicz, Jacek, 2019. "Natural gas-diesel reactivity controlled compression ignition with negative valve overlap and in-cylinder fuel reforming," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 254(C).
    6. Xu, Leilei & Xu, Shijie & Bai, Xue-Song & Repo, Juho Aleksi & Hautala, Saana & Hyvönen, Jari, 2023. "Performance and emission characteristics of an ammonia/diesel dual-fuel marine engine," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 185(C).
    7. Xuewen Zhang & Xiang Huang & Peiyong Ni & Xiang Li, 2023. "Strategies to Reduce Emissions from Diesel Engines under Cold Start Conditions: A Review," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(13), pages 1-21, July.
    8. Christer Wik & Seppo Niemi, 2016. "Low emission engine technologies for future tier 3 legislations - options and case studies," Journal of Shipping and Trade, Springer, vol. 1(1), pages 1-22, December.
    9. Shi, Lei & Cui, Yi & Deng, Kangyao & Peng, Haiyong & Chen, Yuanyuan, 2006. "Study of low emission homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) engine using combined internal and external exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 31(14), pages 2665-2676.
    10. Šimun Lončarević & Petar Ilinčić & Goran Šagi & Zoran Lulić, 2022. "Problems and Directions in Creating a National Non-Road Mobile Machinery Emission Inventory: A Critical Review," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 14(6), pages 1-16, March.
    11. José R. Serrano & Francisco J. Arnau & Jaime Martín & Ángel Auñón, 2020. "Development of a Variable Valve Actuation Control to Improve Diesel Oxidation Catalyst Efficiency and Emissions in a Light Duty Diesel Engine," Energies, MDPI, vol. 13(17), pages 1-26, September.
    12. Kan, Zechao & Hu, Zhiyuan & Lou, Diming & Tan, Piqiang & Cao, Zhiyi & Yang, Zhenhuan, 2018. "Effects of altitude on combustion and ignition characteristics of speed-up period during cold start in a diesel engine," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 150(C), pages 164-175.
    13. Xu, Guangfu & Jia, Ming & Li, Yaopeng & Xie, Maozhao & Su, Wanhua, 2017. "Multi-objective optimization of the combustion of a heavy-duty diesel engine with low temperature combustion under a wide load range: (I) Computational method and optimization results," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 126(C), pages 707-719.
    14. Molina, S. & García, A. & Pastor, J.M. & Belarte, E. & Balloul, I., 2015. "Operating range extension of RCCI combustion concept from low to full load in a heavy-duty engine," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 143(C), pages 211-227.
    15. Matthew J Page & Joanne E McKenzie & Patrick M Bossuyt & Isabelle Boutron & Tammy C Hoffmann & Cynthia D Mulrow & Larissa Shamseer & Jennifer M Tetzlaff & Elie A Akl & Sue E Brennan & Roger Chou & Jul, 2021. "The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews," PLOS Medicine, Public Library of Science, vol. 18(3), pages 1-15, March.
    16. Inal, Omer Berkehan & Charpentier, Jean-Frédéric & Deniz, Cengiz, 2022. "Hybrid power and propulsion systems for ships: Current status and future challenges," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 156(C).
    17. Hunicz, Jacek & Mikulski, Maciej & Geca, Michal S. & Rybak, Arkadiusz, 2020. "An applicable approach to mitigate pressure rise rate in an HCCI engine with negative valve overlap," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 257(C).
    18. Sarjovaara, Teemu & Alantie, Jussi & Larmi, Martti, 2013. "Ethanol dual-fuel combustion concept on heavy duty engine," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 63(C), pages 76-85.
    19. Verschaeren, Roel & Schaepdryver, Wouter & Serruys, Thomas & Bastiaen, Marc & Vervaeke, Lieven & Verhelst, Sebastian, 2014. "Experimental study of NOx reduction on a medium speed heavy duty diesel engine by the application of EGR (exhaust gas recirculation) and Miller timing," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 76(C), pages 614-621.
    20. Fridrichová, K. & Drápal, L. & Raffai, P. & Böhm, M., 2024. "Comparative study of engine dynamics for rolling and selective cylinder deactivation," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 303(C).
    21. Shuang He & Bao-Guo Du & Li-Yan Feng & Yao Fu & Jing-Chen Cui & Wu-Qiang Long, 2015. "A Numerical Study on Combustion and Emission Characteristics of a Medium-Speed Diesel Engine Using In-Cylinder Cleaning Technologies," Energies, MDPI, vol. 8(5), pages 1-20, May.
    22. Hunicz, Jacek & Mikulski, Maciej, 2018. "Investigation of the thermal effects of fuel injection into retained residuals in HCCI engine," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 228(C), pages 1966-1984.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Pachiannan, Tamilselvan & Zhong, Wenjun & Rajkumar, Sundararajan & He, Zhixia & Leng, Xianying & Wang, Qian, 2019. "A literature review of fuel effects on performance and emission characteristics of low-temperature combustion strategies," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 251(C), pages 1-1.
    2. Mikulski, Maciej & Balakrishnan, Praveen Ramanujam & Hunicz, Jacek, 2019. "Natural gas-diesel reactivity controlled compression ignition with negative valve overlap and in-cylinder fuel reforming," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 254(C).
    3. Hoseini, S.S. & Najafi, G. & Ghobadian, B. & Mamat, Rizalman & Sidik, Nor Azwadi Che & Azmi, W.H., 2017. "The effect of combustion management on diesel engine emissions fueled with biodiesel-diesel blends," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 73(C), pages 307-331.
    4. Maciej Mikulski & Teemu Ovaska & Rodrigo Rabetino & Merja Kangasjärvi & Aino Myllykangas, 2025. "Clean Propulsion Technologies: Securing Technological Dominance for the Finnish Marine and Off-Road Powertrain Sectors," Energies, MDPI, vol. 18(5), pages 1-34, March.
    5. Nguyen Xuan Khoa & Ocktaeck Lim, 2022. "A Review of the External and Internal Residual Exhaust Gas in the Internal Combustion Engine," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(3), pages 1-21, February.
    6. Paykani, Amin & Garcia, Antonio & Shahbakhti, Mahdi & Rahnama, Pourya & Reitz, Rolf D., 2021. "Reactivity controlled compression ignition engine: Pathways towards commercial viability," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 282(PA).
    7. Hunicz, Jacek & Mikulski, Maciej & Koszałka, Grzegorz & Ignaciuk, Piotr, 2020. "Detailed analysis of combustion stability in a spark-assisted compression ignition engine under nearly stoichiometric and heavy EGR conditions," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 280(C).
    8. Wu, Nianyuan & Zhang, Fang & Zhang, Fuzheng & Jiang, Chenxing & Lin, Jian & Xie, Shan & Jing, Rui & Zhao, Yingru, 2024. "An integrated multi-objective optimization, evaluation, and decision-making method for ship energy system," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 373(C).
    9. Wang, Kai & Li, Zhongwei & Zhang, Rui & Ma, Ranqi & Huang, Lianzhong & Wang, Zhuang & Jiang, Xiaoli, 2025. "Computational fluid dynamics-based ship energy-saving technologies: A comprehensive review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 207(C).
    10. Wei Tian & Hongchuan Zhang & Lenian Wang & Zhiqiang Han & Wenbin Yu, 2020. "Effect of Premixed n-Butanol Ratio on the Initial Stage of Combustion in a Light-Duty Butanol/Diesel Dual-Fuel Engine," Energies, MDPI, vol. 13(17), pages 1-10, August.
    11. Kerui Pan & Sisi Wang & Xueping Li & Shuoming Wu, 2024. "Efficacy and safety of ultrasound-guided radiofrequency ablation combined with transhepatic artery embolization chemotherapy for hepatocellular carcinoma: A meta-analysis," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 19(9), pages 1-13, September.
    12. Rizkiana Sidqiyatul Hamdani & Sudharto Prawata Hadi & Iwan Rudiarto, 2021. "Progress or Regress? A Systematic Review on Two Decades of Monitoring and Addressing Land Subsidence Hazards in Semarang City," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 13(24), pages 1-26, December.
    13. Boglárka Anna Éliás & Attila Jámbor, 2021. "Food Security and COVID-19: A Systematic Review of the First-Year Experience," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 13(9), pages 1-18, May.
    14. Omoyele, Olalekan & Hoffmann, Maximilian & Koivisto, Matti & Larrañeta, Miguel & Weinand, Jann Michael & Linßen, Jochen & Stolten, Detlef, 2024. "Increasing the resolution of solar and wind time series for energy system modeling: A review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 189(PB).
    15. Barone, Giovanni & Buonomano, Annamaria & Del Papa, Gianluca & Giuzio, Giovanni Francesco & Maka, Robert & Palombo, Adolfo & Russo, Giuseppe, 2026. "Pathways to maritime decarbonisation: analysing alternative fuels across vessel classes," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 229(C).
    16. Chintala, V. & Subramanian, K.A., 2015. "Experimental investigations on effect of different compression ratios on enhancement of maximum hydrogen energy share in a compression ignition engine under dual-fuel mode," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 87(C), pages 448-462.
    17. Garcia-Herrera, Alisson & Serrano-Hernandez, Adrian & Faulin, Javier, 2025. "Understanding the dynamics of crowdshipping in last-mile distribution within urban mobility: A comprehensive framework," Socio-Economic Planning Sciences, Elsevier, vol. 101(C).
    18. Masurier, J.-B. & Foucher, F. & Dayma, G. & Dagaut, P., 2015. "Ozone applied to the homogeneous charge compression ignition engine to control alcohol fuels combustion," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 160(C), pages 566-580.
    19. Cala, Anggie & Maturana-Córdoba, Aymer & Soto-Verjel, Joseph, 2023. "Exploring the pretreatments' influence on pressure reverse osmosis: PRISMA review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 188(C).
    20. Ming Shan & Yu-Shan Li & Bon-Gang Hwang & Jia-En Chua, 2021. "Productivity Metrics and Its Implementations in Construction Projects: A Case Study of Singapore," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 13(21), pages 1-19, November.

    More about this item

    Keywords

    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:eee:appene:v:406:y:2026:i:c:s030626192501863x. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Catherine Liu (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/405891/description#description .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.