Policy-constrained agrivoltaics in Italy: a potato case study linking shading, crop and economics

Solar energy is set to play a pivotal role in the energy transition. However, the large-scale deployment of Photovoltaic (PV) systems competes with agricultural land use, creating a need for integrated approaches that balance energy generation and food production. Agrivoltaic (AV) systems offer a promising solution by combining farming with PV electricity generation, addressing both energy and resource efficiency within the food-energy-water nexus. Here, we present a modelling framework that couples PV power production, high-resolution shading mapping, process-based biomass growth and economic analysis, and apply it to a one-hectare AV field in Sesto Fiorentino, Tuscany, Italy, driven by 5-min meteorological data at 13 cm × 6.5 cm spatial resolution. Results show ground-level irradiance reductions up to 55 % beneath the panels during the potato-growing season. Despite this reduction in irradiance, the spatial distribution of simulated tuber growth diverges from shading patterns: moderately shaded zones can exhibit up to 6 % higher production owing to delayed senescence and improved water-use efficiency. Overall, annual potato yield under AV averaged 26.8 t/ha—15 % below the full-light reference—yet achieved a land equivalent ratio of 1.58, indicating synergistic land-use benefits. Economic analysis distinguishes between abandoned and conventionally cultivated farmland: on abandoned land with 70 % electricity self-consumption, AV achieves an internal rate of return of 13 % (payback in 10 years) versus 21 % (payback in 6 years) for ground-mounted PV, while on conventional farmland the mitigation of crop revenue losses under AV narrows the return gap.