A comprehensive review on 3D interfacial solar evaporation for sustainable desalination and integrated energy management: structural optimization strategies, advanced materials, and emerging applications

Interfacial solar evaporation (ISE) has become a key solution to address global water scarcity by providing an energy-efficient method for water purification. Initially developed as simple double-layered two-dimensional (2D) evaporators, their limited evaporation rates and functionalities spurred the evolution toward three-dimensional (3D) evaporators. This transition marked a transformative shift in the field, where 3D structures not only overcame the theoretical constraints of 2D systems but also introduced novel functionalities through their intricate designs. Although numerous 3D interfacial solar evaporators have been proposed, a comprehensive review of the key advancements in the optimization strategy and application prospect is still lacking. In this review, we systematically examine and summarize advances in 3D evaporators, focusing on rational structural design optimization governing light-water-heat-energy nexus, application of advanced materials in 3D ISE, and derivative functions expanding applications beyond desalination, including salt crystal collection and cogeneration. Challenges and future research prospects are proposed, emphasizing the issues in 3D evaporator development and future research priorities. This review will be helpful for the researches in improving equipment efficiency and coming up with a sustainable desalination and wastewater treatment.