Exploring sustainable solutions in PV-integrated indoor farming: Energy, economic, and environmental insights from major U.S. cities

As urban populations grow, sustainable local food production becomes essential. Indoor farming with integrated photovoltaic systems offers consistent yields under optimal conditions. This study evaluates photovoltaic-based controlled environment agriculture system in the ten most populous U.S. cities, organized by region—North Central, South Central, Northeast, and Southwest—focusing on energy savings, costs, and environmental impacts. A simulation framework resolves control optimization problems at 15-min intervals, where control outcomes and greenhouse states are analyzed for energy efficiency and environmental effects. The study introduces novel aspects: (1) comprehensive environmental impact assessments, targeting light pollution, carbon footprint reduction, and nitrification; (2) a multi-city evaluation for diverse climate insights; and (3) crop growth modeling within a model predictive control framework, offering a scalable, climate-sensitive solution that optimizes energy efficiency and crop yield. Results show that photovoltaic-based greenhouse can cut annual energy consumption by 25.7 %, reducing reliance on non-renewable sources. Geographic factors influence costs: East and Southwest cities, such as New York and Los Angeles, face increased operational expenses (18 %–26 %) due to land and energy constraints, whereas South Central cities like Houston and Phoenix benefit from lower costs due to ample sunlight. Environmental impacts vary; Northeast photovoltaic-based greenhouse reduces carbon emission emissions by 0.658 kg CO₂-eq/m2 annually but increases light pollution by 5 % in dense urban areas. North Central and South cities experience less light pollution but face nitrification issues, averaging 0.77 N2O eq-kg/m2.