IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/appene/v397y2025ics0306261925011286.html

Synchronizing flexible loads with wind energy via Stackelberg game for renewable integration and economic efficiency

Author

Listed:
  • Fatima, Samar
  • Bashir, Arslan Ahmad
  • Jokinen, Ilkka
  • Lehtonen, Matti
  • Pourakbari-Kasmaei, Mahdi

Abstract

The modern electric grid enables prosumers’ participation in energy management by integrating flexible loads like electric vehicles (EVs) and battery energy storage systems (BESS) via demand response (DR). However, the main challenge lies in motivating EV owners to adjust their low-cost charging plans to align with distributed generation, e.g., wind and photovoltaic (PV) power. This requires a reward system with more attractive financial incentives than the customers’ initially planned savings. From the mathematical standpoint, the primary challenge lies in finding the dual of the problem due to the presence of several disjoint or overlapping time-based exceptions in the modeling of EVs and BESS. This study aims to optimize the synergy between PV, wind, and flexible EV loads via an incentive-based DR framework. A bi-level model is proposed and solved using a Stackelberg game between a wind-farm aggregator and customers, reducing customer costs and improving wind-load matching. The proposed bi-level model is transformed into a single-level equivalent through a dual formulation, addressing the complexities of overlapping time-based exceptions causing redundancies. Validated across seasons, the results highlight the DR’s success in enhancing aggregator and customer outcomes. In an example case, customer energy costs dropped by up to 146.56 €/day, and the aggregator reduced the wind energy-load mismatch by up to 356 kWh in one day. Results show that greater load flexibility and wind capacity enhance economic and energy management outcomes, highlighting the impact of scalable DR opportunities.

Suggested Citation

  • Fatima, Samar & Bashir, Arslan Ahmad & Jokinen, Ilkka & Lehtonen, Matti & Pourakbari-Kasmaei, Mahdi, 2025. "Synchronizing flexible loads with wind energy via Stackelberg game for renewable integration and economic efficiency," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 397(C).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:appene:v:397:y:2025:i:c:s0306261925011286
    DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126398
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306261925011286
    Download Restriction: Full text for ScienceDirect subscribers only
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126398?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to

    for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Hussain, Shahid & Teni, Abhishek Prasad & Hussain, Ihtisham & Hussain, Zakir & Pallonetto, Fabiano & Eichman, Josh & Irshad, Reyazur Rashid & Alwayle, Ibrahim M. & Alharby, Maher & Hussain, Md Asdaque, 2024. "Enhancing electric vehicle charging efficiency at the aggregator level: A deep-weighted ensemble model for wholesale electricity price forecasting," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 308(C).
    2. Lv, Si & Wei, Zhinong & Chen, Sheng & Sun, Guoqiang & Wang, Dan, 2021. "Integrated demand response for congestion alleviation in coupled power and transportation networks," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 283(C).
    3. Kebede, Abraham Alem & Kalogiannis, Theodoros & Van Mierlo, Joeri & Berecibar, Maitane, 2022. "A comprehensive review of stationary energy storage devices for large scale renewable energy sources grid integration," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 159(C).
    4. Kanakadhurga, Dharmaraj & Prabaharan, Natarajan, 2024. "Smart home energy management using demand response with uncertainty analysis of electric vehicle in the presence of renewable energy sources," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 364(C).
    5. Mansouri, Seyed Amir & Nematbakhsh, Emad & Jordehi, Ahmad Rezaee & Marzband, Mousa & Tostado-Véliz, Marcos & Jurado, Francisco, 2023. "An interval-based nested optimization framework for deriving flexibility from smart buildings and electric vehicle fleets in the TSO-DSO coordination," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 341(C).
    6. Cedillo, Mónica Hernández & Sun, Hongjian & Jiang, Jing & Cao, Yue, 2022. "Dynamic pricing and control for EV charging stations with solar generation," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 326(C).
    7. Sousa, Jorge & Lagarto, João & Camus, Cristina & Viveiros, Carla & Barata, Filipe & Silva, Pedro & Alegria, Ricardo & Paraíba, Orlando, 2023. "Renewable energy communities optimal design supported by an optimization model for investment in PV/wind capacity and renewable electricity sharing," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 283(C).
    8. Nizami, M.S.H. & Hossain, M.J. & Amin, B.M. Ruhul & Fernandez, Edstan, 2020. "A residential energy management system with bi-level optimization-based bidding strategy for day-ahead bi-directional electricity trading," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 261(C).
    9. Mansourshoar, Paria & Yazdankhah, Ahmad Sadeghi & Vatanpour, Mohsen & Mohammadi-Ivatloo, Behnam, 2022. "Impact of implementing a price-based demand response program on the system reliability in security-constrained unit commitment problem coupled with wind farms in the presence of contingencies," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 255(C).
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Iqra Nazir & Nermish Mushtaq & Waqas Amin, 2025. "Smart Grid Systems: Addressing Privacy Threats, Security Vulnerabilities, and Demand–Supply Balance (A Review)," Energies, MDPI, vol. 18(19), pages 1-77, September.
    2. Mehmet C. Yagci & Thomas Feldmann & Elmar Bollin & Michael Schmidt & Wolfgang G. Bessler, 2022. "Aging Characteristics of Stationary Lithium-Ion Battery Systems with Serial and Parallel Cell Configurations," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(11), pages 1-19, May.
    3. Efstathios E. Michaelides, 2025. "Energy Efficiency and the Transition to Renewables—Building Communities of the Future," Energies, MDPI, vol. 18(7), pages 1-16, April.
    4. Li, Zepeng & Wu, Qiuwei & Li, Hui & Nie, Chengkai & Tan, Jin, 2024. "Distributed low-carbon economic dispatch of integrated power and transportation system," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 353(PA).
    5. Cédric Clastres & Olivier Rebenaque & Patrick Jochem, 2020. "Provision of Demand Response from the prosumers in multiple markets," Working Papers hal-03167446, HAL.
    6. Chen, Yuanyi & Hu, Simon & Zheng, Yanchong & Xie, Shiwei & Hu, Qinru & Yang, Qiang, 2024. "Coordinated expansion planning of coupled power and transportation networks considering dynamic network equilibrium," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 360(C).
    7. Pin-Han Chen & Cheng-Han Lee & Jun-Yi Wu & Wei-Sheng Chen, 2023. "Perspectives on Taiwan’s Pathway to Net-Zero Emissions," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 15(6), pages 1-11, March.
    8. Tatiana Potapenko & Jessica S. Döhler & Francisco Francisco & George Lavidas & Irina Temiz, 2023. "Renewable Energy Potential for Micro-Grid at Hvide Sande," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 15(3), pages 1-17, January.
    9. Yavari, Mohammad & Bohreghi, Iman Mohammadi, 2025. "Developing a green-resilient power network and supply chain: Integrating renewable and traditional energy sources in the face of disruptions," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 377(PC).
    10. Saffari, Mohammadali & Crownshaw, Timothy & McPherson, Madeleine, 2023. "Assessing the potential of demand-side flexibility to improve the performance of electricity systems under high variable renewable energy penetration," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 272(C).
    11. Nguyen, Hai-Tra & Safder, Usman & Loy-Benitez, Jorge & Yoo, ChangKyoo, 2022. "Optimal demand side management scheduling-based bidirectional regulation of energy distribution network for multi-residential demand response with self-produced renewable energy," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 322(C).
    12. Reveles-Miranda, María & Ramirez-Rivera, Victor & Pacheco-Catalán, Daniella, 2024. "Hybrid energy storage: Features, applications, and ancillary benefits," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 192(C).
    13. Haider, Haider Tarish & Muhsen, Dhiaa Halboot & Al-Nidawi, Yaarob Mahjoob & Khatib, Tamer & See, Ong Hang, 2022. "A novel approach for multi-objective cost-peak optimization for demand response of a residential area in smart grids," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 254(PB).
    14. Carlos H. Inga Espinoza & Modesto T. Palma, 2025. "A Coordinated Neuro-Fuzzy Control System for Hybrid Energy Storage Integration: Virtual Inertia and Frequency Support in Low-Inertia Power Systems," Energies, MDPI, vol. 18(17), pages 1-31, September.
    15. Maria Fotopoulou & George J. Tsekouras & Andreas Vlachos & Dimitrios Rakopoulos & Ioanna Myrto Chatzigeorgiou & Fotios D. Kanellos & Vassiliki Kontargyri, 2025. "Day Ahead Operation Cost Optimization for Energy Communities," Energies, MDPI, vol. 18(5), pages 1-20, February.
    16. Qiao, Long & Pu, Wenhao & Wu, Bingwei & Liu, Ruihang & Song, Nanxin, 2024. "Performance study of a supercritical carbon dioxide energy storage system with non-uniform graded compression heat recovery," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 313(C).
    17. Wang, Fei & Ge, Xinxin & Yang, Peng & Li, Kangping & Mi, Zengqiang & Siano, Pierluigi & Duić, Neven, 2020. "Day-ahead optimal bidding and scheduling strategies for DER aggregator considering responsive uncertainty under real-time pricing," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 213(C).
    18. He, Jiawei & Bu, Ningjing & Wen, Weijie & Li, Bin & Zhang, Shouhang & Zhou, Bohao & Wu, Jianzhong, 2025. "Performance analysis and control-coordinated improvement method for distance protection of energy storage station grid-connected lines," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 388(C).
    19. Capper, Timothy & Gorbatcheva, Anna & Mustafa, Mustafa A. & Bahloul, Mohamed & Schwidtal, Jan Marc & Chitchyan, Ruzanna & Andoni, Merlinda & Robu, Valentin & Montakhabi, Mehdi & Scott, Ian J. & Franci, 2022. "Peer-to-peer, community self-consumption, and transactive energy: A systematic literature review of local energy market models," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 162(C).
    20. Shayan, Mostafa Esmaeili & Najafi, Gholamhassan & Ghobadian, Barat & Gorjian, Shiva & Mamat, Rizalman & Ghazali, Mohd Fairusham, 2022. "Multi-microgrid optimization and energy management under boost voltage converter with Markov prediction chain and dynamic decision algorithm," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 201(P2), pages 179-189.

    More about this item

    Keywords

    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:eee:appene:v:397:y:2025:i:c:s0306261925011286. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Catherine Liu (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/405891/description#description .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.