Immersive learning in the metaverse: a review of evidence on pedagogical effectiveness and implementation gaps in Higher Education

This study aims to conduct a critical analysis of the impact of the metaverse on higher education. To achieve this, it addresses both the pedagogical effectiveness and implementation gaps of this technology. The authors performed a systematic review of recent literature (2020-2025), identifying that immersive environments like virtual and augmented reality enhance knowledge retention in practical disciplines (medicine, engineering), particularly through surgical simulations or 3D prototyping. However, it must be noted that these benefits depend on intentional pedagogical designs and well-structured curricula, moving beyond reductionist approaches focused solely on technological novelty. While tools like AI enable personalized learning pathways, their integration raises ethical dilemmas, with the literature highlighting key concerns such as biometric data privacy and algorithmic biases. Implementation gaps reveal profound inequalities: universities in developed economies adopt advanced metaverse solutions, while institutions in peripheral regions face technical and training limitations. Furthermore, the STEM-focused approach marginalizes humanities and social sciences, where in-person interaction remains crucial. Sustainability also emerges as a challenge, with little discussion on the environmental or economic costs of infrastructure like 5G or blockchain. From this, we conclude that the metaverse is not a universal solution but rather a resource whose value depends on inclusive policies, faculty training, and robust ethical frameworks. We urge prioritizing hybrid models that balance innovation with equity.