Children’s Physical Abuse as a Predictor of Literacy Competency Acquisition Among Grade Three Pupils: A Case of Thika Sub- County, Kiambu County, Kenya

Physical abuse remains a major barrier to quality education and child protection in Kenya. Despite legal frameworks prohibiting corporal punishment, children continue to experience physical violence at home and in schools, often justified by cultural norms. This study examined children’s physical abuse as a predictor of literacy competency acquisition among Grade Three learners in Thika Sub-County, Kiambu County. Guided by Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, the study focused on Grade Three as a critical stage where learners transition from “learning to read†to “reading to learn,†with early literacy failure having long-term academic consequences. A mixed-methods design involved 401 participants: 364 pupils, 19 teachers, and 18 parents. Data were collected through structured questionnaires, standardized reading assessments, focus group discussions, and academic record analysis. Findings revealed a significant negative relationship between physical abuse and literacy competency: pupils exposed to higher levels of abuse scored lower in reading fluency, comprehension, and vocabulary. Qualitative findings highlighted fear, anxiety, low self-esteem, and reduced classroom participation as mediating factors. About 47% of learners reported abuse at home, and 18% at school, with abused learners performing significantly worse than peers (p