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Rare Earth Elements: Overview of Mining, Mineralogy, Uses, Sustainability and Environmental Impact

Author

Listed:
  • Nawshad Haque

    (Mineral Resources Flagship, CSIRO, Bag 312 Clayton South VIC 3168, Australia
    These authors contributed equally to this work.)

  • Anthony Hughes

    (Manufacturing Flagship, CSIRO, Bag 312 Clayton South VIC 3168, Australia
    These authors contributed equally to this work.)

  • Seng Lim

    (Energy Flagship, CSIRO, Bag 312 Clayton South VIC 3168, Australia
    These authors contributed equally to this work.)

  • Chris Vernon

    (Mineral Resources Flagship, CSIRO, Bag 312 Clayton South VIC 3168, Australia
    These authors contributed equally to this work.)

Abstract

Rare earths are used in the renewable energy technologies such as wind turbines, batteries, catalysts and electric cars. Current mining, processing and sustainability aspects have been described in this paper. Rare earth availability is undergoing a temporary decline due mainly to quotas being imposed by the Chinese government on export and action taken against illegal mining operations. The reduction in availability coupled with increasing demand has led to increased prices for rare earths. Although the prices have come down recently, this situation is likely to be volatile until material becomes available from new sources or formerly closed mines are reopened. Although the number of identified deposits in the world is close to a thousand, there are only a handful of actual operating mines. Prominent currently operating mines are Bayan Obo in China, Mountain Pass in the US and recently opened Mount Weld in Australia. The major contributor to the total greenhouse gas (GHG) footprint of rare earth processing is hydrochloric acid ( ca. 38%), followed by steam use (32%) and electricity (12%). Life cycle based water and energy consumption is significantly higher compared with other metals.

Suggested Citation

  • Nawshad Haque & Anthony Hughes & Seng Lim & Chris Vernon, 2014. "Rare Earth Elements: Overview of Mining, Mineralogy, Uses, Sustainability and Environmental Impact," Resources, MDPI, vol. 3(4), pages 1-22, October.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jresou:v:3:y:2014:i:4:p:614-635:d:41773
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Golev, Artem & Scott, Margaretha & Erskine, Peter D. & Ali, Saleem H. & Ballantyne, Grant R., 2014. "Rare earths supply chains: Current status, constraints and opportunities," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 41(C), pages 52-59.
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    2. Maasago M. Sepadi & Martha Chadyiwa & Vusumuzi Nkosi, 2020. "Platinum Mine Workers’ Exposure to Dust Particles Emitted at Mine Waste Rock Crusher Plants in Limpopo, South Africa," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 17(2), pages 1-12, January.
    3. Erika Machacek & Jessika Luth Richter & Ruth Lane, 2017. "Governance and Risk–Value Constructions in Closing Loops of Rare Earth Elements in Global Value Chains," Resources, MDPI, vol. 6(4), pages 1-25, October.
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    7. Brown, Rebecca M. & Mirkouei, Amin & Reed, David & Thompson, Vicki, 2023. "Current nature-based biological practices for rare earth elements extraction and recovery: Bioleaching and biosorption," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 173(C).
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    13. Madaleno, Mara & Taskin, Dilvin & Dogan, Eyup & Tzeremes, Panayiotis, 2023. "A dynamic connectedness analysis between rare earth prices and renewable energy," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 85(PB).

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