This sand is mine!: Why sand mining has led to violent conflict in Makueni County, Kenya

Sand is the second-most exploited natural resource after water, with global demand for it steadily increasing. Yet the societal and conflict-related impacts of sand mining remain understudied. This Working Paper examines the conditions under which sand mining generates violent conflict. We argue that violence is most likely to occur where local authorities and law enforcement are corrupt or embedded in the sand economy, and where communities strongly depend on related incomes. Under these conditions, competition between mining groups, conflicts with local communities over environmental damage, and stricter enforcement measures can escalate into violence. An in-depth case study of Makueni County, Kenya, based on fieldwork and media reports supports these expectations. Our findings highlight the need to systematically integrate sand extraction into resource-governance frameworks to protect both the environment and peace.