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Beyond Appearance: The Socioeconomic and Historical Roots of Racial Identity in Brazil

Author

Listed:
  • Diogo Baerlocher

    (Department of Economics, University of South Florida)

  • Renata Caldas

    (Department of Economics, University of South Florida)

  • Francisco Cavalcanti

    (Department of Economics, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco)

Abstract

Using machine learning-based facial analysis and data on approximately 520,000 candidates for local office in Brazil, we study how self-reported racial identity relates to phenotypic appearance, socioeconomic characteristics, and local social context. A Shapley-Owen decomposition reveals that municipality fixed effects explain more variation in self-reported race than appearance, and their relative importance rises sharply among individuals with racially ambiguous phenotypes. Socioeconomic factors such as education exhibit "social whitening" effects concentrated among ambiguous individuals. Local social context has deep historical roots: areas with higher slave population shares in 1872 exhibit stronger norms favoring white self-identification, especially among the phenotypically ambiguous. A mediation analysis reveals that contemporary racial composition---but not economic channels---accounts for a substantial share of this association.

Suggested Citation

  • Diogo Baerlocher & Renata Caldas & Francisco Cavalcanti, 2026. "Beyond Appearance: The Socioeconomic and Historical Roots of Racial Identity in Brazil," Working Papers 2026-01, University of South Florida, Department of Economics, revised Mar 2026.
    • Handle: RePEc:usf:wpaper:2026-01
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    Keywords

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    JEL classification:

    • J15 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Economics of Minorities, Races, Indigenous Peoples, and Immigrants; Non-labor Discrimination
    • N36 - Economic History - - Labor and Consumers, Demography, Education, Health, Welfare, Income, Wealth, Religion, and Philanthropy - - - Latin America; Caribbean
    • Z13 - Other Special Topics - - Cultural Economics - - - Economic Sociology; Economic Anthropology; Language; Social and Economic Stratification

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