Committed or Dissatisfied? Democratic Perceptions and Political Participation in Europe

Why do some citizens engage in political activities beyond elections – out of commitment to democratic values, or out of dissatisfaction with democratic performance? This paper explores how Europeans’ evaluations of democracy shape their non-electoral participation, drawing on data from the European Social Survey Round 10 (2022) and its special module on “Europeans’ understandings and evaluations of democracy.” Using multilevel models, the analysis tests two competing perspectives: (1) committed democrats, who hold strong democratic values and participate as a way of sustaining democratic life; and (2) dissatisfied democrats, or critical citizens, who turn to non-electoral activities as a response to discontent with democratic performance. The results show that lower evaluations of democracy are associated with a greater likelihood of engaging in non-electoral activities, lending support to the dissatisfied democrats perspective. By highlighting the role of subjective democratic evaluations in shaping political behaviour, this study adds nuance to existing scholarship on democracy and participation in Europe and underscores how unmet democratic expectations can mobilise citizens beyond the ballot box.