Firm-stakeholder tension as an antecedent of female board representation in the Middle East and North Africa

This study examines the antecedents of female board representation in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), a region with one of the lowest global rates of women in leadership but substantial crosscountry variation. We introduce the concept of firm–stakeholder tension—the misalignment between a firm's visible gender composition and the characteristics of key stakeholders—and develop hypotheses linking foreign ownership, industry female employment, legal equality, gender parity, and firm size to board diversity. Using a unique hand-collected dataset of 1197 publicly listed firms across 11 MENA countries, our findings show that pro-female foreign ownership, legal equality, and gender parity significantly increase female board presence, while larger firms reduce it; evidence for industry-level effects is weaker. These results advance stakeholder and institutional theories by demonstrating how visible misfits trigger adaptation pressures, but also how local societal norms can reverse expected relationships. Our dataset and context provide novel insights into gender diversity in institutionally challenging environments. Practically, the findings highlight the importance of aligning legal reforms with governance codes, enhancing transparency and enforcement, and embedding inclusive policies and leadership development within firms. Greater female representation can strengthen legitimacy with investors, regulators , and employees, while contributing to women's empowerment, social justice, and inclusive economic growth across the region.