Transactional stress model of annoyance provocation among women onboard paratransit buses: Travel safety and satisfaction

Women are susceptible to annoyance-provoked conflicts and harassment in public transport, particularly in paratransit. Knowing how they cope with onboard conflicts and travel inconveniences will help improve travel safety and satisfaction. However, the conceptualization and modeling of female transactional stressors in transportation have received little attention. This research gap leads to a limited understanding of women's travel inconveniences and coping strategies. To address this problem, this study borrows the Transaction Stress Model (TSM) from behavioral science to conceptualize a structural equation model based on the lived experiences of 265 female paratransit passengers and bus conductors in Accra, Ghana. This study investigates (1) the factors that provoke female passenger-conductor annoyance, (2) mediators of annoyance provocation and women's coping mechanisms, and (3) how passenger-conductor annoyance impacts driver distraction. The results reveal that passenger-related annoyances significantly impact female passengers, bus conductors, and drivers, negatively affecting service quality and safety. Also, passenger conflicts and environmental factors significantly influence driver behavior. Several moderating factors, such as family size, ridership, and education level, have been identified as influencing coping strategies. Recommended interventions include improved passenger education, behavior management, enhanced conductor training and support, and increased investment in service quality. This study contributes to improving women's travel safety and satisfaction by addressing passenger-conductor annoyance to guide transport service operators and safety managers.