Women at Work: A Systematic Diagnostic of Female Saudi Employment Gains in Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia has witnessed a paradox where high demand for labor did not translate into high labor force participation for Saudi women. Despite possessing higher educational attainment than men, Saudi women historically faced lower participation rates, higher unemployment, and concentration in lower-paying sectors. This paper examines the paradoxical surge in Saudi women's employment during a period of economic weakness following the 2014 oil price shock and 2020 pandemic. The study documents unprecedented employment gains driven primarily by new labor market entrants, particularly women with high school education or less, who diversified beyond traditional education and health sectors into retail, construction, manufacturing, and food services. Through empirical analysis of policy reforms implemented between 2016-2022, the paper identifies three key drivers of Saudi women’s employment gains: the removal of legal and social barriers (including workspace requirements and driving restrictions), wage subsidies during COVID-19, and increases in the Nitaqat de facto minimum wage for Saudi workers. While these gains represent historic progress, the analysis reveals concerning trends including a widening gender wage gap and questions regarding the sustainability of subsidy-dependent employment growth. The paper highlights the need to balance short-term policy interventions to increase women’s entry into the workforce with long-term diversification efforts that align women's skills and wage expectations with market demands to ensure sustainable and equitable employment outcomes.