Autonomous Mobility-on-Demand in China

Autonomous mobility-on-demand (AMOD) represents a major transformation in urban transport systems. China has emerged as one of the most ambitious testing grounds for AMOD in the world, driven by a state-orchestrated innovation ecosystem that aligns government policy, industrial collaboration, and technological infrastructure. Since the mid-2010s, China has established multiple “Intelligent Connected Vehicle” pilot zones, issued regulatory frameworks for testing and commercialization, and invested heavily in vehicle-road-cloud coordination and 5G-enabled vehicle-to-everything communication. By 2025, major cities including Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou and Shenzhen had licensed leading firms, such as Baidu, Pony.ai, AutoX and WeRide, to operate fully driverless robotaxi services, making China one of the largest operational AMOD market globally. This chapter analyzes China’s AMOD development through four dimensions: policy, ecosystem, innovation, and impact. It argues that the Chinese model of AMOD is characterized by strong state orchestration, ecosystem integration covering areas such as vehicle manufacturing, artificial intelligence, telecommunications and mobility platforms, and a clear link with national sustainability and digital economy strategies. While China’s AMOD demonstrates rapid technological progress and urban mobility innovation, persistent challenges remain regarding regulatory liability, data governance, public trust, and long-term economic viability. Ultimately, AMOD in China embodies more than a technological advance, instead, it is a geo-economic project that reflects China’s pursuit of global leadership in intelligent transportation and digital infrastructure. By examining this policy-driven trajectory, the chapter contributes to understanding how emerging economies can foster disruptive mobility innovations and shape the future of smart, sustainable urban transport.