Introduction: Inferential Modes in Strategy-Making

In Western management thinking, strategy is typically planned or designed in advance of action. However, during the 1980s and 1990s, it became evident that Japanese companies in various industries often achieved success over their European and American rivals without apparent strategic planning. Henry Mintzberg proposed that strategy might emerge as companies engage in their activities through inductive inference, rather than the traditionally deductive strategy based on predefined plans. This interpretation sparked ongoing debate, and the observation of Samuel Doria Medina’s management trajectory provides strong evidence for a possible resolution to this debate. Medina’s management demonstrates the combination of the two forms of inferential processes at different evolutionary stages and management levels.