A Critical Genealogy of Time Control Devices in France

This chapter analyses the non-linear evolution of working time control systems, focusing on their role in the management and control of working time in France. The decision to focus on France is motivated by the extreme uniqueness of certain employment contracts, which makes it difficult and irrelevant to compare them with other countries. Despite this bias, it will be necessary to look at the development of techniques developed in the United States in particular since the use of management tools is both highly specific (motivated by the adoption of a law, for example) and universal (spread of a managerial ideology, international character of companies such as IBM or technologies). The assumption of a linear progression of these tools is problematic as it underestimates the influence of social, economic, and political factors in their adoption and use. This study is essential to better understand how time control devices (TCDs) shape the structure of organisations, particularly for managers, and how they influence power dynamics within companies. Critical analysis of TCDs can offer ways of re-evaluating assumptions often taken for granted in studies of management and organisational history. Moving away from simplistic narratives of linear technological progress, we explore the complex interplay between time control devices and broader societal factors. Our analysis highlights the nuanced ways in which these devices shaped and were shaped by French economic, social, and cultural conditions. While not exhaustive, our focus on punch cards and timesheets provides a rich case study of how time control devices were used to regulate labour, shape power dynamics, and influence organisational structures. It also offers an alternative to the view that technological innovation is the driver of change.