From social to intangible remittances: A conceptual recalibration with empirical evidence from Southeast Europe

Since the seminal work of Levitt (1998), scholarly interest in social remittances has grown substantially. Yet key theoretical and empirical gaps remain. Conceptually, the field remains underdeveloped, which hinders rigorous analysis. Empirically, evidence on their impact on social change in origin countries is inconclusive, and the mechanisms of transmission remain poorly understood. This thesis addresses these gaps. It advances the theoretical foundation of the field by introducing the new concept of ‘intangible remittances’. As part of this, it develops a typology of intangible remittances, systematically categorizing them by content (economic, environmental, political, or sociocultural) and form (knowledge, normative structures, or practices). Moreover, it proposes a novel theoretical model that identifies determinants of intangible remittance transmission. This theoretical framework is applied in a qualitative study of 53 highly skilled female returnees from Kosovo and Romania. It demonstrates the transformative potential of migration: most participants acquired intangible remittances and tried to transmit them, yet faced significant barriers. Despite these obstacles, they exhibited strong agency that sustained transmission over time. The thesis concludes that the return migration of highly skilled women represents a powerful but fragile source of social change in origin communities. It shows that the transmission of intangible remittances is a non-linear process, shaped by the continuous interplay between barriers, agency, and adaptation. By refining the theoretical underpinnings of intangible remittances and providing detailed empirical insights into their transfer process, it advances our understanding of this phenomenon.