Risk factors and safety strategies for mitigating violations, harassment and assault in taxi and ride-hailing services

Recent evidence highlights an alarming rise in violations, assaults, and harassment targeting both drivers and passengers in taxi and ride-hailing services, prompting concerns about the adequacy of current safety measures. This systematic review identifies key risk factors and proposes strategies to enhance safety and security in these services. We analysed documents from Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed, published between January 2014 and June 2024. Of the 1,783 documents screened, 41 met the inclusion criteria. The review identified several risk factors contributing to increased incidents for both passengers and drivers, including nighttime operations, intoxicated passengers, high-crime areas, lack of surveillance, racial and gender biases, anonymity, inadequate training, and high-stress environments. Strategies to mitigate these risks include installing video and audio recording systems, enhancing app features (e.g. emergency alerts, real-time tracking, verification systems), offering women-only services, keeping interior lights on during dark hours, and displaying signage about surveillance. Training programmes focused on preventing sexual harassment and improving communication were also recommended. Video and audio recordings were identified as particularly effective but must adhere to local legal frameworks. Proper handling and storage of recordings by transportation agencies were emphasised to ensure security and privacy compliance. This paper underscores the need for comprehensive, legally compliant guidelines to address safety concerns in both taxi and ride-hailing services.