Charcoal consumption patterns and factors affecting the energy choices among low- and middle-income urban households in Maputo City

This study investigates energy use patterns and the factors influencing energy choices among low- and middle-income households in Maputo City, Mozambique, as an empirically grounded, policy-oriented case study of the urban energy transition. Using survey data from 255 households and interviews, we apply the energy stacking model to examine how households combine fuels under limited and unequal access to modern energy. Charcoal use remains widespread: 94% of households rely more or less on charcoal, and use it alongside gas and electricity, despite near-universal grid connection. For low-income households, charcoal use persists because it can be purchased in small quantities daily. In contrast, middle-income households diversify their fuel sources. This mix is related to income, education, household size, and cultural and behavioural factors, supporting the energy stacking model over a linear energy ladder model. The results of a Generalised Linear Model indicate that the use of multiple energy sources is associated with less charcoal consumption. In this context, the article concludes by proposing pathways for policymakers and other stakeholders to reduce charcoal demand within urban households.