Unveiling the Complexity in Developing Smart Cities: A Comparative Study Across Countries

Creating Smart Cities (SC) is crucial for addressing today's global economic, social, and environmental issues. Nevertheless, a significant gap exists in comprehending the nation’s contextual routes to accomplish this, particularly in developing nations. This research analyzes Smart Cities models. A fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) was employed, and it revealed routes to create Smart Cities and their complex dynamics in developed and developing countries. The empirical findings of this research provided the basis of a proposed model that highlights five distinct pathways in developed nations and three in those still developing. Five contextual typologies for Smart City creation have been established in developed countries: 1) Global development and tech integration, 2) Economic growth and human capital investment, 3) Social development and governance enhancement, 4) Sustainable mobility and environmental management, and 5) Comprehensive SC vision for developed countries. In contrast, the SC contextual typologies for developing nations comprise 1) Comprehensive urban development and social inclusion, 2) Human capital development with a global view, and 3) Human capital development with tech integration. These research insights serve as essential orientations for policymakers and theorists striving to create Smart Cities.  JEL classification numbers: 021, O380.