Nexus governance in practice: a stakeholder-driven framework for groundwater sustainability in Barahathawa Municipality, Madhesh Province

Groundwater, a critical resource in the water-food-energy-ecosystem (WEFE) nexus, underpins food security and livelihoods globally and regionally. This study applies a contextualized framework – co-developed with local stakeholders – to assess groundwater governance in Barahathawa Municipality, Madhesh Province of Nepal, where 85% of irrigation and domestic needs rely on this resource. The framework evaluates 32 indicators across technical, legal and institutional, cross-sector policy, and operational dimensions, synthesizing findings into a Groundwater Governance Index (GGI). Results reveal a transitional governance system (GGI: 1.03, “early acceptable” stage) with fragmented technical capacity (midway between non-existent and basic) due to unmonitored extraction, unmapped recharge zones, and sparse hydrogeological data. Legal and institutional gaps such as absence of permitting systems, unenforced pollution controls, and inequitable access highlight systemic risks to sustainability. Cross-sector coordination (“acceptable” state) and operational transparency (initial “acceptable” state) reflect growing synergies between agriculture, urban planning, and community actors, yet marginalized groups remain underrepresented. Lens-based analysis underscores lagging “state” governance relative to the “community” and “market” lens, necessitating prioritized investments in participatory hydrogeological mapping, localized regulations, and inclusive decision-making. The framework guides the management of competing needs by offering practical solutions such as better irrigation practices, gender-sensitive budgeting, and partnerships with local drillers. By bridging technical, legal, and social gaps, this approach offers a replicable model for agrarian-urbanizing regions in the western Terai belt of the country, emphasizing adaptive governance, stakeholder synergy, and data-driven policies to balance socio-economic development with groundwater resilience in the face of climate and demographic pressures.