Who is a Muslim? Identities of exclusion—north Indian Muslims, c. 1860–1900

In the second half of the nineteenth century, multiple and contested interpretations of the practices and scriptures of Islam emerged in north India, as different groupings of faith be-came formalised. Fundamental questions, such as who a Muslim was, were answered differently by each group, based on the exclusion of all other Muslims who did not subscribe to their school of thought. Differences in practice, rituals, faith and even demeanour were emphasised through the vibrant Urdu press. The British, in their efforts to count and classify, used very different set of criteria, which were quite alien to how Muslims appropriated their own sense of authenticity.