Ways of Understanding Chinese Expansion: Chineseness and Two Chinas

It is well documented that the distinct social, cultural and physical boundaries separating non-Chinese minorities from the Chinese, who inhabit about 65% of China’s territory, have been eroded by the persistent and pervasive multidimensional influence and direct intervention of the Chinese state. Consequently, these regions are undergoing a transformation that can be defined as ‘Cultural China’. This process is being facilitated by state-sponsored settler colonial policies and consistent Sinicisation practices. This article aims to make a modest contribution to the existing literature on Chinese expansionism and colonialism by analysing Chinese–non-Chinese relations through the lens of the phenomenon of Chineseness. By focusing on the Chineseness and the existence of two Chinas within China’s political borders—cultural China and political China—the article seeks to answer following key questions: In what ways and through what processes are non-Chinese nations and regions Sinicised? What role does Chineseness play in shaping the dynamics of relations between Chinese and non-Chinese groups? How can China establish and sustain a long-term, and potentially permanent, presence in these regions? Furthermore, the article puts forward the argument that China may be perceived as an expansionist and colonialist state, thereby challenging the official Chinese narrative.