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Validating the AIM–N: An AI-motivation and needs scale with multi-group invariance and MIMIC-DIF evidence in higher education

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  • Laura Maska
  • Patra Vlachopanou
  • Dimitrios Kalamaras
  • Angeliki Tsameti

Abstract

The rapid adoption of generative AI in higher education raises critical questions about its impact on student motivation and basic psychological needs. This study introduces and validates the AI-Motivation and Needs (AIM-N) scale, a new instrument assessing how AI integration influences students’ motivational orientations and need satisfaction in learning. Survey data were collected from N = 904 university students. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) supported a multi-factor structure for the AIM-N, comprising two subscales of AI-related redundancy beliefs (task-level and motivational-level) and three subscales of AI-related motivational orientations (intrinsic, identified, controlled), with acceptable model fit (CFI ≈ 0.96, TLI ≈ 0.95, RMSEA ≈ 0.05) and strong factor loadings. Internal consistency was good for most subscales (Cronbach’s α = 0.70–0.90; McDonald’s ω in similar range), except a single-item amotivation indicator. Multi-group CFA indicated that the AIM-N achieved configural, metric, and scalar invariance across gender, study level (Bachelor’s, Master’s, PhD), academic field, and frequency of AI use (ΔCFI

Suggested Citation

  • Laura Maska & Patra Vlachopanou & Dimitrios Kalamaras & Angeliki Tsameti, 2026. "Validating the AIM–N: An AI-motivation and needs scale with multi-group invariance and MIMIC-DIF evidence in higher education," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 21(3), pages 1-31, March.
    • Handle: RePEc:plo:pone00:0341134
    DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0341134
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    1. Dejan Ravšelj & Damijana Keržič & Nina Tomaževič & Lan Umek & Nejc Brezovar & Noorminshah A. Iahad & Ali Abdulla Abdulla & Anait Akopyan & Magdalena Waleska Aldana Segura & Jehan AlHumaid & Mohamed Fa, 2025. "Higher education students’ perceptions of ChatGPT: A global study of early reactions," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 20(2), pages 1-53, February.
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