Evidence on the nature of sectarian animosity from a geographically representative survey of Iraqi and Iranian Shia pilgrims

Sectarian tensions underlie conflicts across the Middle East, but little is known about their roots and associated beliefs. We conducted a large-scale empirical analysis, drawing on an original, geographically representative survey of over 4,000 devout Shiites across Iran and Iraq. We find that sectarian animosity is linked to economic deprivation, political disillusionment, lack of out-group contact and a sect-based view of domestic politics—paralleling patterns seen in ethno-nationalism elsewhere. In contrast, two alternative accounts are largely unsupported: sectarian animosity is not consistently associated with solidarity with a transnational sect-based community, nor does it seem to stem from disputes over religious doctrine. Nonetheless, this identity’s religious roots manifest in differences from typical ethno-nationalism; practising men are less sectarian, consistent with official doctrine encouraging unity, whereas practising women are more sectarian. These gendered patterns suggest an understudied mechanism: religiously mediated socialization, or the transmission of non-religious norms through religious practice.