IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/nat/natcom/v16y2025i1d10.1038_s41467-025-62080-7.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Self-assembling solid Sb electrode enables high-capacity, low-cost Ca-Sb battery

Author

Listed:
  • Sanghyeok Im

    (The Pennsylvania State University)

  • Peyman Asghari-Rad

    (The Pennsylvania State University)

  • Kelly Elizabeth Varnell

    (The Pennsylvania State University)

  • Alex T. Vai

    (Ambri Incorporated)

  • Jianyi Cui

    (Ambri Incorporated)

  • Rachael Howland

    (Ambri Incorporated)

  • David Bradwell

    (Ambri Incorporated)

  • Hojong Kim

    (The Pennsylvania State University)

Abstract

To decarbonize the power grid using renewable technologies without compromising its reliability, low-cost grid-scale energy storage with resilient long-term performance is required. We report a liquid metal battery that achieves high capacity, low electrode costs, and strong cycling performance by replacing the traditional liquid positive electrode with solid particles. The Ca||Sb(s) system described herein achieved 318% higher discharge capacity (715 mAh g−1 Sb) and 71% lower electrode cost (19.1 $ kWh−1) than the most competitive liquid metal battery chemistries yet published. The remarkable increase in specific capacity results from the self-assembly of a micro-structured electronically connected Sb network at the positive electrode during cycling while the formation of a liquid Ca-Li alloy at the negative electrode mitigates the growth of solid Ca dendrites. We demonstrate minimal capacity fade of the Ca||Sb(s) battery over ~4000 full depth-of-discharge cycles and high coulombic (>98.4%) and energy efficiencies (79–84%) at C-rates (C/8–C/10) relevant for daily storage applications coupled with intermittent renewable energy technologies.

Suggested Citation

  • Sanghyeok Im & Peyman Asghari-Rad & Kelly Elizabeth Varnell & Alex T. Vai & Jianyi Cui & Rachael Howland & David Bradwell & Hojong Kim, 2025. "Self-assembling solid Sb electrode enables high-capacity, low-cost Ca-Sb battery," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 16(1), pages 1-8, December.
    • Handle: RePEc:nat:natcom:v:16:y:2025:i:1:d:10.1038_s41467-025-62080-7
    DOI: 10.1038/s41467-025-62080-7
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-62080-7
    File Function: Abstract
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1038/s41467-025-62080-7?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Marc Wentker & Matthew Greenwood & Jens Leker, 2019. "A Bottom-Up Approach to Lithium-Ion Battery Cost Modeling with a Focus on Cathode Active Materials," Energies, MDPI, vol. 12(3), pages 1-18, February.
    2. Kangli Wang & Kai Jiang & Brice Chung & Takanari Ouchi & Paul J. Burke & Dane A. Boysen & David J. Bradwell & Hojong Kim & Ulrich Muecke & Donald R. Sadoway, 2014. "Lithium–antimony–lead liquid metal battery for grid-level energy storage," Nature, Nature, vol. 514(7522), pages 348-350, October.
    3. Takanari Ouchi & Hojong Kim & Brian L. Spatocco & Donald R. Sadoway, 2016. "Calcium-based multi-element chemistry for grid-scale electrochemical energy storage," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 7(1), pages 1-5, April.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Zhou, Xianbo & Fan, Lei & Ning, Jing & Zhou, Hao & Zhang, Weixin & Li, Bo & Li, Haomiao & Wang, Kangli & Jiang, Kai, 2025. "Regulating the discharge performance and electrode interface of liquid metal batteries through external magnetic fields," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 383(C).
    2. Anthony L. Cheng & Erica R. H. Fuchs & Valerie J. Karplus & Jeremy J. Michalek, 2024. "Electric vehicle battery chemistry affects supply chain disruption vulnerabilities," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 15(1), pages 1-11, December.
    3. Liu, Guoan & Xu, Cheng & Li, Haomiao & Jiang, Kai & Wang, Kangli, 2019. "State of charge and online model parameters co-estimation for liquid metal batteries," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 250(C), pages 677-684.
    4. Zhang, Yi & Zhang, E & Guo, Zhenlin & He, Xin & He, Yaling & Li, Haomiao & Jiang, Kai & Zhou, Min, 2023. "Numerical study on thermal characteristics under external short circuit for Li||Bi liquid metal batteries," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 348(C).
    5. Duffner, Fabian & Mauler, Lukas & Wentker, Marc & Leker, Jens & Winter, Martin, 2021. "Large-scale automotive battery cell manufacturing: Analyzing strategic and operational effects on manufacturing costs," International Journal of Production Economics, Elsevier, vol. 232(C).
    6. Simpson, J.G. & Hanrahan, G. & Loth, E. & Koenig, G.M. & Sadoway, D.R., 2021. "Liquid metal battery storage in an offshore wind turbine: Concept and economic analysis," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 149(C).
    7. Bruno Jetin, 2020. "Who will control the electric vehicle market?," International Journal of Automotive Technology and Management, Inderscience Enterprises Ltd, vol. 20(2), pages 156-177.
    8. Keogh, Declan Finn & Baldry, Mark & Timchenko, Victoria & Reizes, John & Menictas, Chris, 2025. "Realising large areal capacities in liquid metal batteries: A battery design concept for mass transfer enhancement," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 377(PC).
    9. Daniele Stampatori & Pier Paolo Raimondi & Michel Noussan, 2020. "Li-Ion Batteries: A Review of a Key Technology for Transport Decarbonization," Energies, MDPI, vol. 13(10), pages 1-23, May.
    10. Oliver Heidrich & Alistair C. Ford & Richard J. Dawson & David A. C. Manning & Eugene Mohareb & Marco Raugei & Joris Baars & Mohammad Ali Rajaeifar, 2022. "LAYERS: A Decision-Support Tool to Illustrate and Assess the Supply and Value Chain for the Energy Transition," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 14(12), pages 1-19, June.
    11. Greenwood, Matthew & Wentker, Marc & Leker, Jens, 2021. "A region-specific raw material and lithium-ion battery criticality methodology with an assessment of NMC cathode technology," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 302(C).
    12. Francesca Lionetto & Sonia Bagheri & Claudio Mele, 2021. "Sustainable Materials from Fish Industry Waste for Electrochemical Energy Systems," Energies, MDPI, vol. 14(23), pages 1-19, November.
    13. James T. Frith & Matthew J. Lacey & Ulderico Ulissi, 2023. "A non-academic perspective on the future of lithium-based batteries," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 14(1), pages 1-17, December.
    14. Xian Wang & Zhengxiang Song & Kun Yang & Xuyang Yin & Yingsan Geng & Jianhua Wang, 2019. "State of Charge Estimation for Lithium-Bismuth Liquid Metal Batteries," Energies, MDPI, vol. 12(1), pages 1-22, January.
    15. Kanchiralla, Fayas Malik & Brynolf, Selma & Olsson, Tobias & Ellis, Joanne & Hansson, Julia & Grahn, Maria, 2023. "How do variations in ship operation impact the techno-economic feasibility and environmental performance of fossil-free fuels? A life cycle study," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 350(C).
    16. Gutsch, Moritz & Leker, Jens, 2024. "Costs, carbon footprint, and environmental impacts of lithium-ion batteries – From cathode active material synthesis to cell manufacturing and recycling," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 353(PB).
    17. Artur Kozłowski & Łukasz Bołoz, 2021. "Design and Research on Power Systems and Algorithms for Controlling Electric Underground Mining Machines Powered by Batteries," Energies, MDPI, vol. 14(13), pages 1-21, July.
    18. Natalie D. Popovich & Deepak Rajagopal & Elif Tasar & Amol Phadke, 2021. "Economic, environmental and grid-resilience benefits of converting diesel trains to battery-electric," Nature Energy, Nature, vol. 6(11), pages 1017-1025, November.
    19. Ding, Yi & Shao, Changzheng & Yan, Jinyue & Song, Yonghua & Zhang, Chi & Guo, Chuangxin, 2018. "Economical flexibility options for integrating fluctuating wind energy in power systems: The case of China," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 228(C), pages 426-436.
    20. Xinhua Zheng & Zaichun Liu & Jifei Sun & Ruihao Luo & Kui Xu & Mingyu Si & Ju Kang & Yuan Yuan & Shuang Liu & Touqeer Ahmad & Taoli Jiang & Na Chen & Mingming Wang & Yan Xu & Mingyan Chuai & Zhengxin , 2023. "Constructing robust heterostructured interface for anode-free zinc batteries with ultrahigh capacities," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 14(1), pages 1-12, December.

    More about this item

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:nat:natcom:v:16:y:2025:i:1:d:10.1038_s41467-025-62080-7. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Sonal Shukla or Springer Nature Abstracting and Indexing (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.nature.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.