Comprehensive Evaluation of PFAS Contamination in U.S. Drinking Water Systems and Its Implications for Human Health in Marginalized Communities

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have emerged as persistent contaminants in U.S. drinking water systems, raising significant public health and environmental justice concerns. These synthetic chemicals are widely used in industrial processes, firefighting foams, and consumer products, and they resist degradation, bioaccumulate, and migrate across environmental media. This study presents a comprehensive evaluation of PFAS contamination patterns across U.S. drinking water systems, integrating regulatory data, peer reviewed literature, and community exposure reports to assess distribution, risk drivers, and health implications, with particular attention to marginalized communities. The analysis maps major contamination sources, including industrial discharge, military installations, waste sites, and wastewater residuals, and examines disparities in monitoring coverage and remediation capacity. Evidence indicates that low income and historically underserved populations are more likely to rely on smaller or under resourced water systems with limited treatment infrastructure and delayed compliance responses. Toxicological and epidemiological findings associate PFAS exposure with increased risks of metabolic disorders, immune dysfunction, developmental effects, and certain cancers, while uncertainty remains regarding mixture effects and long term low dose exposure. The study evaluates current and emerging treatment technologies, including granular activated carbon, ion exchange, and high pressure membrane filtration, highlighting cost, scalability, and operational constraints that disproportionately burden disadvantaged communities. Policy analysis reviews recent federal and state regulatory actions, maximum contaminant level proposals, and funding mechanisms, identifying gaps in enforcement, data transparency, and community engagement. A risk based, equity centered framework is proposed to guide monitoring prioritization, infrastructure investment, and health surveillance in high vulnerability areas. The findings underscore the need for standardized testing, cumulative exposure assessment, and targeted support for affected communities to reduce unequal risk. Strengthening cross sector collaboration, improving public communication, and expanding biomonitoring programs are critical to translating regulatory progress into measurable health protection. This evaluation contributes an integrated perspective linking contamination science, treatment feasibility, and social vulnerability, supporting more just and effective PFAS risk management strategies nationwide. Future research should refine exposure metrics, quantify mixture toxicity, and evaluate community driven remediation models to ensure durable, accountable, and equitable drinking water protection outcomes. Across diverse geographic and socioeconomic contexts in the United States overall today.