Evaluation of picker-to-parts order-picking technologies through field experiments: a comparison of performance, cost, and environmental impact

Although the order-picking process significantly affects warehouse productivity and operating costs, only a few studies have evaluated how the performance of such systems may be influenced using specific order-picking technologies. This study aims to address this gap by investigating the performance of four order-picking technologies in terms of efficiency, operational/investment cost, and environmental impact. Employing a general mixed-level full factorial experimental design, system efficiency is examined through field-based experiments. Operational cost and carbon footprint are calculated by adopting the activity-based costing methodology, and certain emission factors based on ISO14067:2018 standard. The results indicate that pick-by-light achieves the highest efficiency and lowest cost per order line, while pick-by-paper and pick-by-RF scanner exhibit substantially lower performance, and notable trade-offs emerge between cost and environmental impact across technologies. Furthermore, the results reveal that combining an efficient order-picking technology with an experienced workforce and well-designed orders can significantly enhance the performance of order-picking systems.