Springs as Natural Sensors for Sustainable Groundwater Monitoring: Bridging Hydrodynamics, Telemetry and System Constraints

Groundwater is a key strategic resource underpinning water security, and its effective management requires reliable, high-frequency monitoring data. In mountainous regions such as the flysch Carpathians in southern Poland, natural springs are particularly sensitive indicators of aquifer system dynamics. This study analyzes the role of springs in the national groundwater observation and research network and identifies barriers to the implementation of automated monitoring of spring discharge. The research covered 28 springs operating within the regional monitoring network of the Polish Geological Institute—National Research Institute in the Carpathian region. Classical hydrogeological spring classifications were applied and complemented with proprietary criteria addressing formal-legal, technical, and environmental conditions affecting the feasibility of automation. The results show that all of the analysed springs exhibited a Meinzer’s variability index (V) exceeding 100%, and numerous objects showed a coefficient of variation (CV) above 150%, providing quantitative evidence that standard weekly manual measurements statistically fail to capture rapid flow dynamics and peak discharge events. To bridge the gap between hydrodynamic observations and monitoring logistics, this study introduces a novel methodological contribution: the F-T-S-N screening framework. This proprietary, multi-criteria classification quantifies Formal-legal, Technical, Structural, and Nature-environmental barriers to telemetry implementation. The application of this framework demonstrates that the main obstacles to modernization are non-technological. The proposed classification serves as a practical, transferable tool that supports the rational planning of monitoring network automation in other mountainous regions with similar hydrogeological conditions.