Wetland and Forest Restoration Enhances Multiple Ecosystem Service Recoveries and Resilient Livelihoods in the Tropics

The degradation of wetlands and forests is still a threat to the supply and recovery of ecosystem services in the tropics. Studies comparing restoration measures and ecosystem service recoveries are fragmented. This study investigated the spatial extent and drivers of wetland/forest degradation, and assessed the effects of restoration measures on the recovery of ecosystem services and resilient livelihoods. A cross-sectional household survey was conducted targeting households adjacent to restored and unrestored wetland/forest ecosystems. The data was analyzed using a Binary Logistic regression to characterize earlier and recovered ecosystem services between forest and wetland ecosystems. High spatial-resolution optical satellite imagery from the Airbus constellation was obtained and analyzed to examine wetland and forest degradation. Our findings revealed that the spatial extent of degraded land under wetlands and forests decreased between 2023 and 2025. Ecosystem service degradation was primarily driven by chronic poverty, excessive water abstraction, population growth, burning practices, overharvesting of resources, overgrazing, cultivation, infrastructure development, and the invasion of alien species ( p < 0.05). The counteractive ecosystem restoration activities undertaken included mobilization and sensitization of communities on wetland restoration, wetland demarcation, revegetation, establishment of flood control measures, and provision of alternative livelihoods ( p ≤ 0.05). The multiple direct and indirect ecosystem service recoveries reported were provisioning services (increases in pasture, enhanced livestock production, increased soil productivity, health-related benefits from crops and livestock products) and regulating services (improved water quality/quantity). The ecosystem service recoveries were more significant in the restored wetlands than the forests. The indicators of enhanced ecosystem-based resilient livelihoods included increased household incomes, higher livestock yields, increased crop productivity, improved health from crop/livestock products, improved water quality/quantity, and enhanced scenic beauty and tourism ( p < 0.05). The restoration activities in degraded wetland systems had more potential to facilitate full recovery of the wetland ecosystem compared to the absence of interventions. This evidence highlights the need to restore high-ecological-sensitive ecosystems to sustain the delivery of ecosystem services for community and environmental resilience.