Exploring Comfort and Efficiency: Comparing Vernacular and Modern Dwellings in Rural Handan, Northern China

The residential building sector is a significant source of global energy consumption and carbon emissions, especially in rapidly changing rural areas. In China, the shift from vernacular courtyard dwellings to modern rural housing has altered the relationship among architectural form, thermal comfort (TC), and energy use. Vernacular dwellings in northern China employ passive strategies, such as courtyard-centred layouts, high thermal-mass envelopes, and natural ventilation, to achieve summer comfort with minimal energy input. In contrast, modern dwellings (brick–concrete) depend more on mechanical cooling and consume more electricity. This study investigates how dwelling type, spatial configuration, building materials, courtyard configuration, thermal comfort, and housing satisfaction interact to shape residential environmental adaptability in rural Handan, Hebei Province. A questionnaire survey of 383 households was analysed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM). To supplement perceptual data, summer electricity consumption was monitored in 20 typical dwellings from June to August 2025, and on-site measurements of air temperature, relative humidity, and courtyard air velocity were conducted in six representative cases. The results indicate that dwelling type significantly affects spatial configuration and courtyard form, while spatial configuration and courtyard characteristics together influence material performance. Thermal comfort is identified as a key mediating variable with a strong direct impact on housing satisfaction. Field measurements confirm that vernacular dwellings have lower summer electricity consumption, more stable thermal conditions, improved humidity regulation, and higher courtyard air velocity, indicating superior passive cooling potential. These findings provide empirical evidence that incorporating vernacular passive design principles into contemporary rural housing can improve thermal comfort and reduce energy dependence, thereby supporting climate-responsive, low-carbon rural revitalization strategies.