Multi-Source Joint Water Allocation and Route Interconnection Under Low-Flow Conditions: An IMWA-IRRS Framework for the Yellow River Water Supply Region Within Water Network Layout

Under intensifying climate change and anthropogenic pressures, extreme low-flow events increasingly jeopardize water security in the Yellow River water supply region. This study develops the Inter-basin Multi-source Water Joint Allocation and Interconnected Routes Regulation System (IMWA-IRRS) to optimize spatiotemporal allocation of multi-source water and simulate topological relationships in complex water networks. The model integrates system dynamics simulation with multi-objective optimization, validated through multi-criteria calibration using three performance indicators: correlation coefficient ( R ), Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency ( E ns ), and percent bias ( PBIAS ). Application results demonstrated exceptional predictive performance in the study area: Monthly runoff simulations at four hydrological stations yielded R > 0.98 and E ns > 0.98 between simulated and observed data during both calibration and validation periods, with | PBIAS | < 10%; human-impacted runoff simulations at four hydrological stations achieved R > 0.8 between simulated and observed values, accompanied by PBIAS within ±10%; sectoral water consumption across the Yellow River Basin exhibited PBIAS < 5%, while source-specific water supply simulations maintained PBIAS generally within 10%. Comparative analysis revealed the IMWA-IRRS model achieves simulation performance comparable to the WEAP model for natural runoff, human-impacted runoff, water consumption, and water supply dynamics in the Yellow River Basin. The 2035 water allocation scheme for Yellow River water supply region projects total water supply of 59.691 billion m 3 with an unmet water demand of 3.462 billion m 3 under 75% low-flow conditions and 58.746 billion m 3 with 4.407 billion m 3 unmet demand under 95% low-flow conditions. Limited coverage of the South-to-North Water Diversion Project’s Middle and Eastern Routes constrains water supply security, necessitating future expansion of their service areas to leverage inter-route complementarity while implementing demand-side management strategies. Collectively, the IMWA-IRRS model provides a robust decision-support tool for refined water resources management in complex inter-basin diversion systems.