Decarbonizing Coastal Shipping: Voyage-Level CO 2 Intensity, Fuel Switching and Carbon Pricing in a Distribution-Free Causal Framework

Coastal shipping plays a critical role in meeting maritime decarbonization targets under the International Maritime Organization’s (IMO) Carbon Intensity Indicator (CII) and the European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS); however, operators currently lack robust tools to forecast route-specific carbon intensity and evaluate the causal benefits of fuel switching. This study developed a distribution-free causal forecasting framework for voyage-level Carbon Dioxide (CO 2 ) intensity using an enriched panel of 1440 real-world voyages across four Nigerian coastal routes (2022–2024). We employed a physics-informed monotonic Light Gradient Boosting Machine (LightGBM) model trained under a strict leave-one-route-out (LORO) protocol, integrated with split-conformal prediction for uncertainty quantification and Causal Forests for estimating heterogeneous treatment effects. The model predicted emission intensity on completely unseen corridors with a Mean Absolute Error (MAE) of 40.7 kg CO 2 /nm, while 90% conformal prediction intervals achieved 100% empirical coverage. While the global average effect of switching from heavy fuel oil to diesel was negligible (≈−0.07 kg CO 2 /nm), Causal Forests revealed significant heterogeneity, with effects ranging from −74 g to +29 g CO 2 /nm depending on route conditions. Economically, targeted diesel use becomes viable only when carbon prices exceed ~100 USD/tCO 2 . These findings demonstrate that effective coastal decarbonization requires moving beyond static baselines to uncertainty-aware planning and targeted, route-specific fuel strategies rather than uniform fleet-wide policies.