Towards Sustainable Energy Generation Using Hybrid Methane Iron Powder Combustion: Gas Emissions and Nanoparticle Formation Analysis

Iron powder represents a promising carbon-free, sustainable fuel, yet its practical utilisation in combustion has not yet been realised. Achieving stable, efficient iron-only flames is challenging, and the environmental impact of hybrid iron-hydrocarbon combustion, including particle emissions, is not fully understood. This study investigates hybrid methane–iron powder flames to assess iron’s role in modifying gas and particle phase emissions and its potential as a sustainable energy carrier. The combustion of iron was investigated at both the single particle and powder flow scales. Experimental diagnostics combined high-speed and microscopic imaging, ex situ particle sizing, in situ gas analysis, and aerosol measurements using an Aerodynamic Particle Sizer (APS™) and a Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer (SMPS™). For single particle combustion, high-speed imaging revealed rapid particle heating, oxide shell growth, cavity formation, micro-explosions, and nanoparticle release. For powder combustion, at 0.5 g/min and 1.26 g/min, the experiment yielded oxidation fractions of 15.15% and 23.43%, respectively, and increased CO 2 emissions by 0.22–0.35 vol% relative to methane–air flames, while NOx changes were negligible. Aerosol analysis showed a supermicron mode at ~2 µm and submicron ultrafine particles of 89% <100 nm with a modal diameter of ~56 nm. The observed ultrafine particle emissions highlight the need to evaluate health, material-loss, and fuel-recycling implications. Burner optimisation or premixed strategies could reduce CO 2 emissions while enhancing iron oxidation efficiency.