Designing Accessible and Comfortable Bus Interiors for Sustainable and Smart Urban Mobility: A Pilot Experimental Ordinal Regression Study

Accessible and comfortable public transportation is a cornerstone of sustainable and inclusive urban mobility. However, there is a knowledge gap in how interior layout influences riders’ comfort perception under constant occupancy conditions. We conducted a pilot laboratory experiment in Valparaíso, Chile using a full-scale urban bus mock-up. Twenty-five participants each experienced four seating scenarios (yielding 100 total observations per outcome) that varied seat pitch (20, 30, 45 cm) and seat orientation (forward-facing vs. side-facing). Cumulative link mixed models were used to estimate seat pitch and orientation effects on the comfort outcomes, with participant-specific random intercepts. Increased seat pitch dramatically improved comfort ratings (e.g., virtually no participants felt comfortable at 20 cm, whereas nearly all did at 45 cm). Side-facing bench seating (longitudinal orientation) yielded significantly higher comfort, legroom, and ease-of-movement ratings than the forward-facing configuration at ~30 cm pitch ( p < 0.001). Within the tested mock-up conditions, the results suggest that seat pitch is a major driver of perceived comfort and in-vehicle usability, and that a side-facing bench layout (tested at ~30 cm spacing) can improve perceived spaciousness relative to forward-facing seating. Because this is a small, non-probability pilot sample and a partial factorial design, these findings should be considered preliminary design sensitivities that warrant validation in larger, in-service studies before informing fleet-wide standards.