Hydroclimatic and Remote-Sensing Framework for Characterizing Hydric Stress and Its Linkages to Landscape Degradation in Northwestern Mexico

This study evaluates the spatial variability of hydric stress in the State of Sinaloa, northwestern Mexico, through the integrated analysis of hydroclimatic variables, multispectral remote sensing indicators, and environmental factors. Historical hydroclimatic conditions were analyzed using meteorological records from 1961 to 2020, whereas Landsat 8 imagery acquired on 7 July 2025, was used to evaluate the spatial expression of hydric stress. Reference evapotranspiration ( ETo ) was estimated using the FAO-56 Penman–Monteith methodology, and hydrological deficit conditions were determined from the relationship between precipitation ( P ) and ETo . Spectral indicators including land surface temperature ( T ¯ a ), the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index ( NDVI ), Normalized Difference Water Index ( NDWI ), Modified Normalized Difference Water Index ( MNDWI ), and the NDWI/MNDWI relationship were used to evaluate vegetation response, surface moisture conditions, and thermal anomalies associated with hydric stress. The results revealed persistent conditions where ETo systematically exceeded P , with hydrological deficit values ranging from approximately −1600 mm·year −1 to localized positive values near 50 mm·year −1 . The most severe deficits were concentrated within the northwestern and north-central agricultural valleys of Sinaloa. Statistical validation revealed significant negative relationships between hydrological deficit and all evaluated spectral indicators. The strongest association was observed for MNDWI ( R 2 = 0.387), followed by NDWI/MNDWI ( R 2 = 0.277), NDWI ( R 2 = 0.220), and NDVI ( R 2 = 0.134), confirming the sensitivity of vegetation and moisture-related indicators to long-term hydrological stress conditions. Spatial analyses revealed a strong correspondence among low NDVI , negative NDWI and MNDWI responses, elevated T ¯ a , and regions characterized by high atmospheric evaporative demand. Additional spatial validation integrating land-use and vegetation-cover changes (1993–2011), regional geology, topography, and the distribution of highly productive agricultural valleys demonstrated that the most severe hydrological deficits coincided with areas affected by vegetation-cover loss, agricultural expansion, and intensive land use. Although these datasets correspond to different observation periods, they collectively reflect the cumulative environmental effects associated with persistent hydrological stress across the region. The combined effects of hydrological imbalance, forest-cover reduction, and agricultural intensification have progressively reduced ecosystem resilience and increased environmental vulnerability throughout one of the most productive agricultural regions of northwestern Mexico. These findings provide a scientific basis for water-resource management, territorial planning, ecosystem restoration, and climate-adaptation strategies under increasing water-scarcity conditions.